IT 605

Computer Networks

Introduction

Prof . Anirudha Sahoo

KReSIT
IIT Bombay

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.1

 About the course
• a graduate entry-level course

• designed to give students a

background in
– Networking concepts
– Internet technologies
– Introduction to few advanced areas in
networking

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.2

 Emphasis of the course
• The main emphasis of the course will
be
– conversant with the modern day
network technologies
– Sufficient background in analysis of
networks/protocols.
– stepping stone to future research in the
field of networks

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.3

 Course contents
The topics covered in this course include
• Core Computer Network:
– Various layers of network, LAN technologies
– Various MAC protocols
– Data link control protocols
– Network layer, IP routing protocols
– Transport layer, TCP, UDP
– Scheduling algorithms

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.4

 Course contents
• Network Applications:
– Client-Server Architecture, Sockets
Applications, DNS, email etc.
• Network Security:
– Basic Network and Data Security
• Voice over IP & voice routing
• Introduction to QoS in networks

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.5

 Lecture Schedule
• 1. Introduction (1)
• 2. Introduction (2)
• 3. Network Layers (1)
• 4. Network Layers (2)
• 5. MAC Protocols (1)
• 6. MAC Protocols (2)
• 7. MAC Protocols (3)
• 8. Network devices (1)
• 9. Data Link Control (1)
• 10. Data Link Control (2)
• 11. Network Layer (1)
• 12. Network Layer (2)
• 13. Network Layer (3)
• 14. Transport Layer (1)
• 15. Transport Layer (2)
• 16. socket programming (1)
• 17. socket programming (2)
Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.6
 Lecture Schedule
• 18. Scheduling (1)
• 19. Scheduling (2)
• 20. Introduction to Mobile Computing
• 21. Network Security (1)
• 22. Network Security (2)
• 23. Network Applications (1)
• 24. Network Applications (2)
• 25. Voice over IP (1)
• 26. Voice over IP (2)
• 27. QoS in networks (1)
• 28. QoS in networks (2)

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.7

 Texts/References
• 1. Computer Networks, Latest edition -
Andrew Tanenbaum
• 2. Computer Networks, A Systems Approach
– L. Peterson and B. Davie
• 3. An Engineering Approach to Computer
Networking, S. Keshav
• 4. Internetworking with TCP/IP Vol.-1, ed.-3,
Douglas E. Comer
• 5. Unix Network Programming : Networks
APIs : Sockets and XTI. Vol.-1 ed.-2,
W.Richard Stevens
• 6. Unix Network Programming: Interprocess
Communications. Vol.-2. ed.-2, W.Richard
Stevens
Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.8
• 7. Data and Computer Communications, 6th
 Prerequisites
• Familiarity with basic networking
concepts is necessary
• An undergraduate course in networks
is desirable
– but not mandatory
• Familiarity with C and unix-based
system is required
• Background in computer algorithm is
required (undergrad level computer
algorithm)
Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.9
• Background in basic probability theory
 Evaluation (Credit
Students)
• 30% - 1 mid-term Exam
• 50% - Final End-semester Exam
• 20% - 4 Quizzes
• Attendance
– Minimum attendance absolutely
required as per DEP rules

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.10

 Evaluation (Non-credit
Students)
• Exactly same as credit students
• Need to get a passing grade to get a
completion certificate

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.11

 Policy for Academic
Dishonesty
• Academic Dishonesty (a.k.a. cheating)
in any form will not be tolerated at all
– Will not hesitate to take the extreme
measure: give you a fail grade and will
not be allowed to take any courses in
the future

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.12

 Logical View of Internet

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.13

 Physical View of Internet

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.14

 Perspectives
• Network designers: Concerned with
cost-effective design

– Need to ensure that network

resources are efficiently utilized
and fairly allocated to different
users.

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.15

 Perspectives (contd.)
• Network users: Concerned with
application services

– Need guarantees that each

message sent will be delivered
without error within a certain
amount of time.

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.16

 Perspectives (contd.)
• Network providers: Concerned with
system administration

– Need mechanisms for security,

management, fault-tolerance and
accounting.

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.17

 Connectivity
Building Blocks:
• nodes: general-purpose workstations,
special boxes ...
• links: coax cable, optical fiber...

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.18

 Connectivity (contd.)
Direct Links:
• point-to-point

Point-to-point network

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.19

 Connectivity (contd.)
• multiple access

multiple access network

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.20

 Switched networks

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.21

 Internetworks

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.22

 Networking at Different
Stages
• Different technologies and protocols
work at different stages of networks.
– Local Area Network (LAN)
– Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
– Wide Area Network (WAN)

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.23

 LAN
• Network owned by offices, enterprises
– Spans a room or a building
– Restricted in size
– Often use a transmission technology
consisting of a single cable to which all
the machines are attached.
– Typically runs at 10-100 Mbps range.
– Examples
• IEEE 802.3 ethernet
• IEEE 802.5 token ring
Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.24
 MAN
• Basically a bigger version of a LAN
• Normally uses similar technology like
LAN
• Covers a group of nearby offices or a
city
– May be either a private or public
network
• Examples
– IEEE 802.6 DQDB (Distributed Queue
Dual Bus)
Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.25
– Metro Ethernet (gigabit ethernet based
 WAN
• Spans a large geographical area
– Often a country or a continent
• Point-to-point WAN
– Usually leased from a carrier network
e.g. telephone company
• Circuit Switched WAN
– ISDN based
• Packet Switched WAN
– Share resources provided by the
service provider
– ATM, frame relay, X.25Introduction
Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay 1.26
 Effective resource
sharing
Need to share (multiplex) network
resources (nodes and links) among
multiple users.

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.27

 Strategies
• Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM):
– Each user periodically gets the
entire bandwidth for a small burst
of time.

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.28

 Common Multiplexing
Strategies (contd.)
• Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM):
– Frequency spectrum is divided
among the logical channels.
– Each user has exclusive access to
his channel.

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.29

 Statistical Multiplexing
• Time-division, but on demand rather
than fixed
• Reschedule link on a per-packet basis
• Packets from different sources
interleaved on the link

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.30

 Statistical Multiplexing

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.31

 Statistical Multiplexing
(contd.)
• Buffered packets contend for the link
• Packet queue may be processed FIFO,
but not necessarily
• Buffer (queue) build up is called
congestion
• Buffer (queue) overflow : packet loss

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.32

 Switching Strategies
• Circuit Switching: dedicated circuit;
send/receive a bit stream
– end-to-end path setup before
actual communication.
– no congestion for an established
circuit connection.

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.33

 Circuit Switching
– resources are reserved; only
propagation delays.

– unused bandwidth on an allocated

circuit is wasted.

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.34

 Switching Strategies
(contd.)
• Packet Switching: store-and-forward;
send/receive messages (packets)
– no prior setup of end-to-end path
from the source to the destination.
– packets are forwarded one hop at
a time.

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.35

 Packet Switching
– greater network utilization,
multiplexing possible.

– typically ``best-effort" service;

may face congestion.

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.36

 Addressing
• Address: byte-string that identifies a
node; usually unique
– physical address: device level
– network address: network level
– logical address: application level

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.37

 Addressing (contd.)
– unicast: node-specific
– broadcast: all nodes on the
network
– multicast: some subset of nodes
on the network

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.38

 Routing
• Mechanisms of forwarding messages
towards the destination node based on
its address

• Need to learn global information

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.39

 Network Architecture
• To reduce design complexity:
– Use abstractions to hide
complexity; Abstraction naturally
leads to layering
– Can have alternative abstractions
at each layer

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.40

 Network Architecture
(contd.)

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.41

 Protocols and Services
• Each protocol module/object has
two different interfaces
– service interface: defines operations
on this protocol. Each layer provides
a service to the layer Above.
– peer-to-peer interface: defines
messages exchanged with peer.
Protocol of “conversation” between
corresponding Layers in Sender and
Receiver.

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.42

 Protocols and Services
(contd.)
• Term ``protocol'' is also used to
denote the implementation of the
peer-to-peer interface.

• Multiplexing and Demultiplexing.

• Headers and Encapsulation.

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.43

 TCP/IP Layers
• Physical Layer: Concerned with
transmitting bits over a
communication channel.
– Issues largely deal with electrical
and procedural interface to the
physical transmission medium.

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.44

 TCP/IP Layers (contd.)
• Data Link Layer: Concerned with
transforming the raw physical layer
into a `link' for the higher layer.
– Issues largely deal with framing,
error detection/correction and
multiple access.

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.45

 TCP/IP Layers (contd.)
• Internet Layer: Concerned with
addressing and routing of packets.
– Issues largely deal with
addressing, subnetting and route
determination.

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.46

 TCP/IP Layers (contd.)
• Transport Layer: Concerned with end-
to-end connection characteristics.
– Issues largely deal with
retransmissions, sequencing and
congestion control.

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.47

 TCP/IP Layers (contd.)
• Application Layer: Concerned with
``application'' protocols.
– Issues largely deal with providing
services to users and application
developers.

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.48

 Layering Summary
• Advantages of layering:
– Allows a ``divide-and-conquer''
strategy for building networks.
– Easier to understand and implement as
compared to a monolithic approach.
– If the service interface remains
unchanged, implementation of a layer
can be changed without affecting other
layers.

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.49

 Layering Summary
(contd.)
– Specification is separated from
implementation.
– Reuse of functionality.
– Upper layers can share the services
provided by the lower layers. The
lower layers implement some of the
common functionalities

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.50

 Layering Summary
(contd.)
• Disadvantages of layering:
– Implementation may not be the most
“efficient”.
– Major concern in low bandwidth
networks and low power hosts.

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.51

 OSI Reference Model - The ISO
Model of Architecture for Open
• ExistsSystems Interconnection
theoretically
• Services Each
Application layer (7)
layer provides to Presentation layer (6)
layer Above Session layer(5)
Transport Layer (4)
• Protocols Network layer (3)
Between Data Link Layer (2)
corresponding Physical Layer (1)
Layers in Sender
and Receiver
• Good Software
Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.52
 Physical layer

Moves bits from one end to other

• Media Dependent
– Copper: Coaxial/Twisted Pair; Typically upto
100 Mbps
– Fibre: Single/Multi Mode; Can transmit in
Gigabits/second
– Satellite: Channels of 64 kbps, 128 kbps
– Radio waves: Ranges from Kbps to Mbps

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.53

 Physical layer
• Media Independent
– Connectors: Interface between
equipment and link
– Control, clock and ground signals
– Protocols: RS 232 (20 kbps, 10 ft), RS
449 (2 Mbps, 60 ft)
•

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.54

 Data Link layer

Controls a single physical link

• Logical Link Control (LLC):
– Framing (start and stop)
– Error Detection
– Error Correction
– Optimal Use of Links (Sliding Window
Protocol)
– Examples: HDLC, LAP-B, LAP-D

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.55

 Data Link layer
• Medium Access Control (MAC):
– Multiple Access Protocols
– Channel Allocation
– Contention, Reservation, Round-robin
– Examples: Ethernet (IEEE 802.3),
Token Ring (802.5)

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.56

 How to share a channel
with/without a
Coordinator: Medium
Access Control
• Scheduled Access (GSM) (MAC)
– Time Slotted, User knows when to transmit
• Random access (CSMA/CD)
– Carrier Sense
• POLITENESS: If you hear some one talking,
wait until s/he finishes.

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.57

 MAC
• PERSISTENT: Start immediately after line
becomes free. This leads to COLLISION. If
channel is busy, senses the medium
persistently
– 1-persistent – stations waits until channel is idle and then
immediately send
– p-persistent – transmits with a probability p when channel is idle
• NON-PERSISTENT: Wait for some (random)
time when channel is busy and then transmit
immediately when idle
– Collision Detection
• Station must listen when transmitting
• Minimum transmission time needed to detect
collision
Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.58
– Binary Exponential Backoff
 Network Layer
• Why do we need a network layer?
– Can all machines in the world be
Ethernet?
– Other Technologies (modems, token
ring)
• Goals and Services:
– Hide type of subnets (Ethernet, Token
Ring, FDDI ... )
– Hide topology of subnets
– Choose good routes
Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.59
– Uniform addressing scheme
 Transport Layer
• Accepts data from session layer and split it
into smaller units (if needed) and pass them
to network layer
• Typical transport layer would provide error-
free point-to-point data channel that
delivers message/bytes in the order in which
they were sent
• However, other possible kind could be
transport of isolated messages with no
guarantee
• It is a true end-to-end layer from source to
destination (in lower layers
Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay
protocols are 1.60
Introduction
between each machine and its immediate
 Session Layer
• Allows users on different machines to
establish sessions between them
• Allows ordinary data transport (as
does transport layer) and also provides
enhanced services useful for some
applications (e.g. checkpointing of
sessions, dialog control)

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.61

 Presentation Layer
• Performs certain functions that are
requested sufficiently often to warrant
finding a general solution for them
• Unlike lower layers, this layer is
concerned with syntax and semantics
of the information transmitted
• Manages abstract data structures and
converts from the representation
inside the computer (e.g. ASCII,
Unicode) to the network standard and
Profback
. Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.62
 Application Layer
• Handles application specific
issues/protocols
– e.g. different file naming conventions,
different ways of representing text
lines
– Various special and general purpose
facilities are taken care of by
application layer while two remote
applications communicate with each
other.
Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.63
 Comparison of two
models
OSI TCP/IP

Application Application
Presentation
Session
Transport Transport

Network Internet

Data Link Data Link

Physical Physical
Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.64
 Internet Application

• Client-Server Paradigm
• Servers run ``service'' (Mail, News,
WWW, ...)
• Clients access using ``protocols'' (SMTP,
HTTP, ...)
• Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.65
Communication using ports and sockets
 Sockets

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.66

 Socket Programming

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.67

 Socket Programming
• Typical sequence
– Allocate Local Resources
– Specify communication End Points
(ports)
– Initiate/Listen for connections
– Send/receive data
– Terminate connections gracefully
– Release resources
• Design Issues
– for scalability, State full/Stateless servers,
Concurrent, Iterative service
Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.68
 Network Applications
• Domain Name Service ( DNS)
• Simple Mail transfer Protocol (SMTP)
• Network File System ( NFS)
• Network Management (SNMP)
• Network Security ( Secured Socket
Layer SSL, IPSec)

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.69

 Packet Scheduling
• Packet switched network shares
resources
– Hence scheduling is important to
decide which packet should be served
when
• Can be very simple (FIFO) to quite
complex (WFQ)
• An important aspect of providing QoS

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.70

 Advanced Topics
• Voice over IP (VOIP)
– An emerging technology
• Same IP network can be used for
telephony
– But voice traffic needs better
treatment from the network
• Low delay
• Low packet loss
– Hence needs QoS from the network

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.71

 Advanced Topics
• QoS Networks
– Standard QoS Architectures in IP
• IntServ
• DiffServ
• MPLS

Prof . Anirudha sahoo, KReSIT, IIT Bombay Introduction 1.72