Facilitating Learner-

Centered Teaching

Module 1

METACOGNITION

Reporter:
Jason B. Vista

Professor:
Dr. Sammy B. Begas
What is Metacognition?
• the term "metacognition" was coined by John
Flavell(1979, 1987). According to him,
metacognition consist of both metacognitive
knowledge and metacognitive experiences or
regulation.
• simply put "thinking about thinking" or
"learning how to learn". It refers to higher
order thinking which involves active
"If you teach a
awareness and control over the cognitive
processes engaged in learning.
person what to
• Metacognitive knowledge refers to acquired
learn, you are
preparing that knowledge about cognitive processes,
person for the knowledge that can be used to control
past. If you cognitive processes.
teach a person • Metacognitive regulation is the regulation of
how to learn, cognition and learning experiences through a
you are set of activities that help people control their
preparing that learning.
person for the • Metacognitive experiences are those
future." experiences that have something to do with
the current, on-going cognitive endeavor.
-Cyril Houle
3 CATEGORIES OF METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE
Knowledge of Person Variables
• how one views himself as a learner and thinker
• how human beings learn and process information
• individual knowledge of one's own learning process
Knowledge of Task Variables
• knowledge about the nature of the task as well as
type of processing demands that it will place upon
individual
• knowing what exactly needs to be accomplished,
gauging its difficulty and knowing the kind of effort
it will demand from you
Knowledge of Strategy Variables
• involves awareness of the strategy you are using to learn
the topic and evaluating whether this strategy is
effective
Terms like Meta-attention - awareness of specific strategies
so that you can keep your attention focused on the topic or
task at hand. and Meta-memory - awareness of memory
strategies that work best for you, is related to Strategy
Variables
Metacognitive Strategies to Facilitate
Learning
• metacognition involves knowledge and skills which you and your
students can learn and master.

Some examples of teaching strategies to develop metacognition:

• Have students monitor their own learning and thinking.

• Teach students study or learning strategies. (TQLR,PQ4R)
• Have students make predictions about information to be
presented next based on what they have read.
• Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures.
• Have students develop questions; ask questions of themselves,
about what's going on around them.
• Have students know when to ask for help.
• Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values,
skills to other situations or tasks.
 DIFFIRENCE BETWEEN NOVICE AND EXPERT
LEARNERS
Aspect of Learning Novice Learners Conceptual Knowledge

Have deeper knowledge in the different

Have limited knowledge in the
Knowledge in different subject subject areas because they look for
different subject areas Expert Learners
areas interrelationships in the things they learn

Satisfied at just scratching the First try to understand the problem, look
surface; hurriedly gives solution for boundaries, and create a mental
Problem Solving to the problem picture of the problem

Employ rigid strategies that may Design new strategies that would be
Learning/Thinking Strategies not be appropriate to the task at
appropriate to the task at hand
hand

Select important information to process;

Attempt to process all
Selectivity in Processing able to breakdown information to
information they receive
manageable chunks

Do not examine the quality of Check their errors and redirect their
Production of output their work, nor stop to make efforts to maintain quality
revisions
 Facilitating Learner-
Centered Teaching

Module 2

LCP
Learner-Centered
Psychological Principles

Reporter:
Jason B. Vista

Professor:
Dr. Sammy B. Begas
Learner-Centered
The 14 Psychological Principles have the following aspects:
Psychological Principles

• they focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to

and under the control of the learner rather than conditioned habits
• put together by the or physiological factors. However, the principles also attempt to
American Psychological acknowledge external environment or contextual factors that
Association (APA) interact with these internal factors.
• there are 14 psychological • intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-
principles pertaining to the world learning situation. Thus they are best understood as an
organized set of principles; no principle should be viewed in
learner and learning process.
isolation.
• divided into those referring to (1) cognitive and metacognitive, (2)
motivational and affective, (3) developmental and social, and (4)
individual differences factors influencing learners and learning.
• are intended to apply to all learners - from children, to teachers, to
administrators, to parents, and to community members involved in
our educational system.
I. Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

• Nature of the learning process - the learning of complex subject

matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of
constructing meaning from information and experiences.
• Goals of the learning process - the succesful learner, over time
and with support and instructional guidance, can create
meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
• Construction of knowledge - the successful learner can link
new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
• Strategic thinking - the successful learner can create and use a
repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve
complex learning goals.
• Thinking about thinking - higher order strategies for selecting
and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical
thinking.
• Context of learning - learning is influenced by environmental
factors, including culture, technology and instructional
practices.
II. Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning - what and

how much is learned is influenced by the learner's motivation.
Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual's
emotional states, beliefs, interest and goals, and habits of thinking.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn - the learner's creativity, higher order
thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn.
Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal
choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort - acquisition of complex
knowledge and skills require extended learner effort and guided
practice. Without learner's motivation to learn, the willingness to
exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.
IV. Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental influences on learning - as individuals develop,

there are different opportunities and constraints for learning.
Learning is most effective when differential development within
and across physical, intellectual, emotional and social domains is
taken into account.
11. Social influences on learning - learning is influenced by social
interactions, interpersonal relations and communications with
others.
V. Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual differences in learning - learners have different
strategies, approaches and capabilities for learning that are a
function of prior experience and heredity.
13. Learning and diversity - learning is most effective when
differences in learner's linguistic, cultural and social backgrounds
are taken into account
14. Standards and assessment - setting appropriately high and
challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as learning
progress - including diagnostic process and outcome assessment -
are integral parts of the learning process.

Patricia Alexander an Educational
Psychologist and Dr. P. Karen
Murphy a Distinguished Professor
of Education (Alexander and
Murphy) gave a summary of the
14 principles and distilled them
into five areas:
5 Areas of Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
(Alexander and Murphy)
One's existing knowledge serves
as the foundation of all future
learning. The learner's previous
knowledge will influence, new
1. The Knowledge base
learning specifically on how he
represents new information,
makes associations and filters
new experiences.
Learner's can develop skills to
reflect and regulate their
2. Strategic Processing and
control
thoughts and behaviors in order
to learn more
effectively(metacognition)
Factors such as intrinsic
motivation (from within),
reasons for wanting to learn,
3. Motivation and affect
personal goals and enjoyment of
learning tasks all have a crucial
role in theislearning
Learning process.
a unique journey for
each person because each learner
4. Developmental and Individual
has his own combination of
Differences
genetic and environmental
factors that influence him.
Learning happens in the context
5. Situation or context of society as well as within an
 Facilitating Learner-
Centered Teaching

Module 3
Review of the Theories Related to
the Learner's Development

Reporter:
Jason B. Vista

Professor:
Dr. Sammy B. Begas
SIGMUND FREUD
Freud emphasized the 3 components that make up one's
personality, the id, ego and the superego.

3 components of personality

id - pleasure-centered
ego - reality-centered
- (born May 6, 1856, Freiberg,
Moravia, Austrian Empire [now
super-ego - the ego related to the ideal or conscience.
Příbor, Czech Republic]—died
September 23, 1939, London, - he also believed that an individual goes through five
England), Austrian neurologist and the psychosexual stages of development. This includes the
founder of psychoanalysis. oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages.
 3 COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY
SIGMUND FREUD The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth. This aspect of
personality is entirely unconscious and includes of the instinctive and primitive
behaviors. According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy, making it the
primary component of personality.

The ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality.
According to Freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the
id can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world. The ego functions in both
the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.

The last component of personality to develop is the superego. The superego is the
aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral standards and ideals that
- (born May 6, 1856, Freiberg, we acquire from both parents and society--our sense of right and wrong. The superego
Moravia, Austrian Empire [now provides guidelines for making judgments. According to Freud, the superego begins to
Příbor, Czech Republic]—died emerge at around age five.
There are two parts of the superego:
September 23, 1939, London, - The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for good behaviors. These behaviors
England), Austrian neurologist and the include those which are approved of by parental and other authority figures. Obeying
founder of psychoanalysis. these rules leads to feelings of pride, value and accomplishment.

- The conscience includes information about things that are viewed as bad by parents
and society. These behaviors are often forbidden and lead to bad consequences,
punishments or feelings of guilt and remorse.
SIGMUND FREUD 5 PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF
DEVELOPMENT
during this first stage of development, a human’s libido is located in their mouth.
Meaning the mouth is the primary source of pleasure. Example: breastfeeding,
biting, sucking and exploring the world by putting things in the mouth.
Age range: Birth to 1 year Erogenous zone: The mouth
1. ORAL STAGE

during this stage, potty training and learning to control your bowel movements
and bladder are a major source of pleasure and tension.
Age range: 1 to 3 years old Erogenous zone: anus and bladder
- (born May 6, 1856, Freiberg,
Moravia, Austrian Empire [now 2. ANAL STAGE
he proposed that for young boys, this meant obsession with their own penis. For
Příbor, Czech Republic]—died young girls, this meant fixation on the fact that they don’t have a penis, an
experience he called “penis envy.” Age range: 3 to 6 yrs old E. zone: genitals,
September 23, 1939, London, specifically the penis
England), Austrian neurologist and the
3. PHALLIC STAGE
During the latency stage, the libido is in “do not disturb mode.” Freud
founder of psychoanalysis.
argued that this is when sexual energy was channeled into industrious,
asexual activities like learning, hobbies, and social relationships. Age
range: 7 to 10 yrs old
4. LATENCY STAGE

this is when an individual begins to have strong sexual interest in the

opposite sex
5. GENITAL STAGE
• Age range: 12 and up, or puberty until death
 • he said "Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough
ERIK ERIKSON not to fear death." He believed in the impact of the significant others in the
development of one's view of himself; life and of the world. He presented a
very comprehensive framework of eight psycho-social stages of development.
He describe the crisis(expressed in opposite polarities) that a person goes
through; the maladaptations and malignancies that result from failure to
effectively resolve the crisis; and the virtue that emerges when balance and
resoluttion of the crisis is attained.

- (born June 15, 1902, Frankfurt am EIGHT PSYCHO-SOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Main, Germany—died May 12, 1994,
Harwich, Massachusetts, U.S.), German-
born American psychoanalyst whose
writings on social psychology, individual
identity, and the interactions of
psychology with history, politics, and
culture influenced professional
approaches to psychosocial problems and
attracted much popular interest.
JEAN PIAGET
- (born August 9, 1896, Neuchâtel, Switzerland—
died September 16, 1980, Geneva), Swiss
psychologist who was the first to make a
systematic study of the acquisition of
understanding in children. He is thought by many
to have been the major figure in 20th-century
developmental psychology.
He said "the principal goal of education in the
schools should be creating men and women who
are capable of doing new things, not simply
repeating what other generations have done."
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
The Sensorimotor Stage THEORY
The sensorimotor stage is the first phase of children’s cognitive development. During this stage,
children primarily learn about their environment through their senses and motor activities.
The Preoperational Stage
where their ability to use mental representations, rather than the physical appearance of objects or
people, improves greatly. Examples of abstract representations include engaging in pretend play and
talking about events that happened in the past or people who are not currently in the room.
The Concrete Operational Stage
During this stage, children are more capable of solving problems because they can consider numerous
outcomes and perspectives. All of their cognitive abilities are better developed in this stage. During
this stage, children understand the concept of conservation better and, as a result, are better at solving
conservation problems. Conservation refers to the idea that things can be the same, even if they look
different.
The Formal Operational Stage
Abstract thought characterizes this stage. Children can think about abstract concepts and are not
limited to a current time, person, or situation. They can think about hypothetical situations and various
possibilities, like situations that don’t exist yet, may never exist, or might be unrealistic and
fantastical. During this stage, children are capable of hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which allows
them to test hypotheses and draw conclusions from the results. Unlike younger children who
haphazardly approach problems, children in the formal operational stage can apply their reasoning
skills to apply more complicated problems in a systematic, logical manner.
LAWRENCE • he said "Right actions tends to be defined in terms of general
KOHLBERG individual rights and standards that have been critically examined
and agreed upon by the whole society."
• influenced by Piaget, Kholberg believed that one's cognitive
development influenced the development of one's moral
reasoning.

- (born October 25, 1927, Bronxville,

New York, U.S.—died January 17, 1987,
Boston, Massachusetts), American
psychologist and educator known for his
theory of moral development.
 moral code) of others , is when people
LAWRENCE follow rules because they don’t want to
get in trouble or they want to get a
KOHLBERG reward. This level of morality is mostly
based on what authority figures like
parents or teachers tell you to do rather
1. Pre-conventional Morality
than what you think is right or wrong.
Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment
is the second
Orientation. level of ismoral
The child/individual good
development
to avoid being (8 years Ifolda person
punished. to earlyis
punished, they mustcharacterized
adolescence), have done wrong. by
Stage 2. Individualism
accepting and Exchange.
social rules and the At
this stage, children recognize that there is
expectations of others concerning
not just one right view handed down by
right and wrong.
the authorities. Different individuals have
Stage viewpoints.
different 3. Good Interpersonal
Relationships. The child/individual
2. Conventional Moralitygood
is the to level
third be seen as being
of moral a good
development
- (born October 25, 1927, Bronxville, person
and by others. Therefore,
is characterized answers
by an individual’s
New York, U.S.—died January 17, 1987, understanding of universal
relate to the approval of others.ethical
principles.
Stage 4. Law and Order Morality.
Boston, Massachusetts), American Postconventional morality is aware
when
The child/individual becomes
psychologist and educator known for his people
of the decide
widerbased
ruleson of
what they think
society, so
is right rather than just following the
theory of moral development. judgments concern obeying the rules
rules.
to uphold the law and avoid guilt.
Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual
Rights. The child/individual becomes
aware that while rules/laws might exist
for the good of the greatest number,
3. Post-conventional Morality
there are times when they will work
against the interest of particular
individuals. The issues are not always
clear-cut. For example, in Heinz’s
dilemma, the protection of life is more
important than breaking the law against
stealing.
Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at
LEV VYGOTSKY
- born November 17, 1896, in Orsha, a
city in the western Russian Empire. A
seminal Russian psychologist best known
for his sociocultural theory.
He said "The Teacher must orient his
work not on yesterday's development
in the child but on tomorrow's." He
emphasized the role of social
interaction in learning and
development.
ON LANGUAGE
Vygotsky viewed language as an essential tool for communication and that culture
and behaviour was understood through language. Vygotsky also highlighted the
critical role that language plays in cognitive development. Vygotsky's theory says
that social interactions help children develop their ability to use language.
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT
The concept of the zone of proximal development, also known as the zone of
potential development, is used to explain a child's potential for cognitive
development and ability when they are guided through a task, rather than asked
to do it in isolation.
If a child is presented with a task that is slightly above their ability level, the
zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to their ability to do it with the
assistance of a more knowledgeable person. This theory explains why some
skills present themselves in a more social context when the child is unable to
display them by themselves.
The zone of proximal development can be described as the distance between
the actual developmental level when assessed independently and the level of
potential development when assessed in collaboration with peers or mentors or
under the guidance of a teacher.
URIE
BIOECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY
BRONFENBRENNER
-presents child development within the context of relationship
systems that comprise the child's environment. The model is
composed of:

• microsystem
• mesosystem
• exosystem
- (born April 29, 1917, Moscow, • macrosystem
Russia, U.S.S.R.—died September 25,
• chronosystem
2005, Ithaca, New York, U.S.),
Russian-born American psychologist
best known for having developed -the term "bioecological" points out that the child's own
Bioecological Systems Theory. biological make-up impacts on his/her development.
BIOECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY

The Microsystem
The microsystem is the first level of Bronfenbrenner’s theory and are the things that have direct
contact with the child in their immediate environment, such as parents, siblings, teachers, and
school peers.
Relationships in a microsystem are bi-directional, meaning other people can influence the child in
their environment and can also change the beliefs and actions of other people.
Furthermore, the child’s reactions to individuals in their microsystem can influence how they treat
them in return.
The interactions within microsystems are often very personal and are crucial for fostering and
supporting the child’s development.
If a child has a strong nurturing relationship with their parents, this is said to have a positive effect
on the child. Whereas distant and unaffectionate parents may have a harmful effect on the child.
BIOECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY

The Mesosystem
The mesosystem encompasses the interactions between the child’s microsystems, such as the
interactions between the child’s parents and teachers or between school peers and siblings.
The mesosystem is where a person’s individual microsystems do not function independently, but
are interconnected and assert influence upon one another.
For instance, if a child’s parents communicate with the child’s teachers, this interaction may
influence the child’s development. Essentially, a mesosystem is a system of microsystems.
According to the ecological systems theory, if the child’s parents and teachers get along and have
a good relationship, this should have positive effects on the child’s development, compared to
negative effects on development if the teachers and parents do not get along.
BIOECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY

The Exosystem
The exosystem is a component of the ecological systems theory developed by Urie
Bronfenbrenner in the 1970s.
It incorporates other formal and informal social structures, which do not themselves contain the
child but indirectly influence them as these social structures affect one of the microsystems.
Examples of exosystems include the neighborhood, parents’ workplaces, parents’ friends, and the
mass media. These are environments in which the child is not involved and are external to their
experience but nonetheless affect them anyway.
An instance of exosystems affecting the child’s development could be if one of the parents had a
dispute with their boss at work.
The parent may come home and have a short temper with the child as a result of something which
happened in the workplace, which may result in a negative effect on development.
BIOECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY

The Macrosystem
The macrosystem is a component of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory that focuses on
how cultural elements affect a child’s development, such as socioeconomic status, wealth,
poverty, and ethnicity.
Thus, the culture that individuals are immersed within may influence their beliefs and perceptions
about events that transpire in life.
The macrosystem differs from the previous ecosystems as it does not refer to the specific
environments of one developing child, but the already established society and culture in which the
child is developing in.
This can also include the socioeconomic status, ethnicity, geographic location, and ideologies of
the culture.
For example, a child living in a third-world country would experience a different development
than a child living in a wealthier country.
BIOECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY

The Chronosystem
The fifth and final level of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory is known as the
chronosystem.
This system consists of all the environmental changes that occur over the lifetime that influence
development, including major life transitions and historical events.
These can include normal life transitions, such as starting school, and non-normative life
transitions, such as parents getting divorced or having to move to a new house.
 Facilitating Learner-
Centered Teaching

Module 4
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Reporter:
Jason B. Vista

Professor:
Dr. Sammy B. Begas
FACTORS THAT BRING ABOUT STUDENT DIVERSITY

In all learning environments, individuals interact with others who are in some way
different from them like physical characteristics and abilities, gender, race, spiritual
beliefs, age, etc.

This diversity also comes from other factors like the following:

• Socioeconomic status - The millionaires' lifestyle differs from that of the

middle income or lower income group.
• Thinking/Learning Style - some learn better by seeing something; others by
just listening; and still others by manipulating something.
• Exceptionalities - in class there maybe one who has difficulty in spoken
language comprehension or in seeing, hearing, etc.
HOW DIVERSITY ENRICHES THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

A teacher may be challenged to handle a class so diverse. There may be students with
different cultural background, different language abilities, different attitudes and
aptitudes and behaviors. Yet a more reflective teacher may see a diverse classroom as
an exciting place to learn not just for her students, but for herself as well.
This diversity also comes from other factors like the following:

• Socioeconomic status - The millionaires' lifestyle differs from that of the middle
income or lower income group.
• Thinking/Learning Style - some learn better by seeing something; others by just
listening; and still others by manipulating something.
• Exceptionalities - in class there maybe one who has difficulty in spoken language
comprehension or in seeing, hearing, etc.
HOW DIVERSITY ENRICHES THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Some of the benefits and learning opportunities that student diversity can bring:
• Student's self-awareness is enhanced by diversity
• Student diversity contributes to cognitive development
• Student diversity prepares learners for their role as a responsible members of
society
• Student diversity can promote harmony
HOW DIVERSITY ENRICHES THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Some tips on Student Diversity

• Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences.
• Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote student's multicultural and cross-cultural
awareness
• Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that transcend group differences
• Communicate high expectations to students from all subgroups
• Use valid instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in learning style
• Vary examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide multiple context that are relevant to
students from diverse backgrounds
• Adapt to the student's diverse background and learning styles by allowing them personal choice and
decision-making opportunities concerning what they will learn and how the will learn it.
• Diversify your methods in assessing and evaluating student learning.
• Purposely, form small-discussion group of students form diverse backgrounds. You can form groups of
students with different learning styles, different cultural background etc.