PRESENTATION ON

LIFE SPAN
DEVELOPMENT
INFANCY,
ADOLOSCENCE
 Physical Development
 Cognitive Development
 Emotional Development

(PRAGYA
KAPUR)
19/1191
CHANGES IN PROPORTION OF THE
HUMAN BODY DURING GROWTH
 INFANCY
PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT
 Height and Weight
Height and Weight increase rapidly in infancy.
In the first several days of life, most newborns
lose 5 to 7 percent of their body weight. They
grow rapidly, gaining an average of 5 to 6
ounce ounces per week during the first month
 Sleep
Infants sleep 16 to 17 hours a day.
Although some sleep more, others less.
The range is from a low of about 10 hours
to a high of about 21 hours per day.
 COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
PIAGET'S THEORY OF INFANT COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
The sensorimotor Sensorimotor
stage lasts fromStage:-
birth to about 2 years of
age. During this stage of cognitive development, infants
construct an understanding of the world by coordinating
sensory experiences with physical, motor actions.
SUBSTAGES:-
Piaget divided the sensor imotor stage into six substages.
1.Simple Reflexes
(First month after birth)

2. First Habits and primary circular reactions

(Between 1 and 4 months of age)
3. Secondary Circular reactions
(Between 4 and 8 months of age)

4. Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions

(Between 8 and 12 months of age)

5. Tertiary circular reactions, novelty and curiousity

(Between 12 and 18 months of age)

6. Internalization of schemes
(Between 18 and 24 months of age)
 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
IN INFANCY
Basic Emotions
1. Happiness - During the early weeks, newborn babies
smile when full during REM sleep, and in response to
gentle touches and sounds.

2. Anger and sadness - Newborn babies respond with

generalized distress to a variety of unpleaaant experiences,
including hunger, painful medical procedures and too
much or too little stimulation.

3. Fear - Infants hesitate before playing with a new toy.

But the most frequent expression of fear is to unfamiliar
adults, a response called stranger anxiety.
 ERIKSON'S STAGE OF
TRUST VERSUS
MISTRUST
Erikson recognized that no parent can be
perfectly in tune with the baby's needs.
Many factors affect parental
responsiveness like personal happiness,
family conditions and child rearing
practices.
ButBut when the balance of care is
sympathetic and loving, the psychological
conflict of the first year- trust versus
mistrust- is resolved.
 UNDERSTANDING AND RESPONDING TO
THE EMOTIONS OF OTHERS
Infants' emotional expressions are closely tied to their
ability to interpret the emotional cues of others.
In the first few months babies match the feeling to me
of the caregiver in face to face communication.
By 4 to 5 months, infants distinguish positive from
negative emotion in voices.
Beginning at 8 to 10 months, infants engage in SOCIAL
REFERENCING- actively seeking emotional
information from a trusted person in an uncertain
situation. In social referencing, toddlees use others
emotional messages to evaluate the safety and security
of their surroundings, to guide their own actions, and to
gather information about others intentions.
 PUBERTY
Puberty occurs primarily in early adoloscence that
provides stimulation for the rapid physical changes
that take place during this period.
Sexual maturation, height and weight:-
Male pubertal characteristics include increase in
penis and testicle size, appearence of straight public
hair, minor voice change, onset of maximum growth
in height and weight, growth of hair in armpits,
more detectable voice changes and growth of facial
hair.
In pubertal girls, first, either the breasts enlarge or
public hair appear. Later, hair appear in the
armpits. Menarche - a girl's first menstruation
comes late in the pubertal cycle.
PIAGET'S THEORY OF ADOLOSCENT
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
FORMAL PREOPERATIONAL STAGE:-
In this stage, adoloscents are no longer limited to actual,
concrete experiences. They can conjure up make believe
situations, abstract propositions and can try to reason
logically about them.
The abstract quality of thinking during the formal
operational stage is evident in the adoloscents' verbal
problem solving ability. Adoloscents engage in extended
speculation about ideal characteristics. At the same
time, adoloscents also think more logically. They begin
to devise plans to solve problems and systematically
testing solutions (Hypothetical Reasoning).
ERIKSON'S THEORY: IDENTITY VERSUS
ROLE CONFUSION

Erikson called the psychological conflict of

adoloscence identity versus role confusion. He
believes that successful psychosocial outcomes of
infancy and childhood pave the way toward a
positive resolution.

For most young people, identity development

is not traumatic and disturbing but rather a
process of exploration and commitment.
FOUR IDENTITY STATUSES:-
  SELF UNDERSTANDING

 CHANGES IN SELF
CONCEPT

 CHANGES IN SELF ESTEEM

DEVELOPMENTAL
CHANGES IN
CHILDHOOD
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

01 02 03 04

Emotional Physical & Emotional

Physical & development in cognitive development in
cognitive early childhood development in middle & late
development in middle & late childhood
early childhood childhood
INTRODUCTION
Childhood refers to the
stage and condition of a
child’s life. It is the time
for children to be in
school and at play, to
grow strong and confident
with the love and
encouragement of their
family.

Evidences show that how

a child develops during
this time affects future
cognitive, social,
emotional, language as
well as physical
development, which in
turn influences school
readiness and later success
in life.
 Middle and late
Early childhood childhood
• Pre-school years. • Elementary school
• Ranges from 3-5 years.
years of age. • Ranges from 6-10 or
• Children gain a 11 years of age.
sense of self- • Growth rate slow
independence. downs & children re-
• Children began to define their motor
learn language & skills.
working of physical • Children learn more
world. about social
relationships.
 EARLY
CHILDHOOD
 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
BODY GROWTH MOTOR SLEEP NUTRITION & ILLNESS &
DEVELOPME EXERCISE DEATH
NT
-Height averages -Children -Should sleep -Eating habits -Accidents are
2 & half inches become 11-13 hours affect body leading cause of
and weight 5-7 adventuresom without shape and death, followed
pounds a year. e as their interruption susceptibility by cancer &
gross motor to disease. cardiovascular
-Body fats show skills -Sleep disease.
a steady decline. increases problem are -Children
related to should get 2 -Children’s safety
-Brain grows -Fine more being hours of is mainly
slowly & skills also depressed or exercise per determined by
changes are due increases. overweight day. parents, teachers
to myelination. & peers.
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

- Children construct knowledge through social interaction.

- They use speech to solve task & language for self-regulation.

- Child’s ability to pay attention increases.

- However, their control of attention is still deficient.
- Short-term memory increases during childhood.
- Children engage in goal oriented behavior and self-control.
- Children recognize false beliefs.
 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

 Children’s emotional development involves expressing

Expressing emotions
emotions, understanding emotions and regulating
01
emotions.
 Children experience self-conscious emotions such as
pride, shame and guilt. Understanding
emotions
 Young children understand that certain situations
evoke particular emotions, facial expression and 02
emotions affect behavior.
 Between 2 and 4 years of age, children use an Regulating emotions

increasing number of terms to describe emotions

and also learn more about the consequences and 03
causes of feelings.
 At 4 to 5 years of age, children show an increased
ability to reflect on emotions and manage them.
 Emotion regulation plays an important role in
successful peer relation.
 MIDDLE AND
LATE CHILDHOOD
 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

BODY THE BRAIN MOTOR EXERCISE HEALTH, ILLNESS

CHANGE & DEVELOPME & DISEASE
GROWTH NT
-Height -Brain volume -Motor skills -Higher level of -It is a time of
averages 2-3 stabilizes. becomes physical activity excellent health.
inches a year smoother & is linked to lower
-advances in more level of risk of -The most common
- Weight functioning of coordinated. metabolic cause of death is
averages 5-7 the prefrontal disease. motor vehicle
pounds a year. cortex -Children master accidents followed by
gross motor -Aerobic exercise cancer.
-Head and -Cortical skills is linked to
waist thickness children’s -Being overweight is
circumference -Improvement cognitive skills. an increasing child
decreases. -Synaptic of fine motor health problem.
pruning skills is due to -Parents & school
increased determine -The precursors to
myelination of children’s adult cardiovascular
the CNS. exercise level. disease may be
present.
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

 Piaget’s concrete operational stage :

-Children are able to perform concrete operations & reason logically.

-Elementary school children are capable of seriation & transitivity.

 Information processing :

-Long term memory & meta memory increases.

-Children use gist to improve memory (Fuzzy Trace theory)
-Working memory is linked to children’s cognitive & language development.
-Cognitively competent children think creatively.
-Self monitoring improves.
-Increase in cognitive control.
 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Developmental changes

Improved Tendency to be Use of

emotional aware of the self-initiated
understanding events leading for redirect
to emotional feelings
Understanding reaction Ability to A capacity
that more than suppress and for genuine
one emotion can conceal negative empathy
be experienced emotions
 Coping with stress
 As children get older, they are able to appraise a
stressful situation and determine how much control
they have over it.
 Older children generate more coping alternatives
 They are better than the younger children at
intentional shifting, reframing or changing their
perception of stressful situation.
 Disasters can harm children’s development and
produce acute stress reactions.
 Parents, teachers and other adults can provide care
to the children post disasters or trauma by
reassuring, encouraging and protecting them.
 DOMAINS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

What is Moral Moral

Development Behavior

Social Domain
Theory
Moral
Thought

Moral Feeling

Moral
Personality

*Moral development is a topic of great concern to societies,

communities, and families because it involves how we all get
along.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
 Moral development involves changes in thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors regarding standards of right and wrong.

 That we develop and appreciates the rights and feelings of others

which is a part of one’s moral being. As at times, when a child is
developing their moral being, it may also develop in moral outrage
with the development of language and broadening of social
experiences.
INTRAPERSONA INTERPERSO
 L DIMENSION NAL
DIMENSION
This involves a person’s This regulates social
activities when she or he interactions and arbitrates
is not engaged in social conflict. To understand moral
interaction. development
 Moral development considers mainly five
domains or questions:-
 1) First, how do individuals reason or think about moral decisions?

 2) Second, how do individuals actually behave in moral

circumstances?

 3) Third, how do individuals feel about moral matters?

 4) Fourth, what characterizes an individual’s moral personality?

 5) Fifth, how is the moral domain different from social conventional

and personal domains?
 Moral Development has three components-

1) Affective Component- Feeling of guilt and regret when we are

responsible for other person’s grief.

2) Behavioral Component- Moral thoughts can increase

likelihood of behaviors, but do not guarantee.

3) Cognitive Component- Social understanding develops more,

which leads to more profound judgments about people.
 A major perspective on moral development was proposed by
Lawrence Kohlberg (1958, 1986). Central to Kohlberg’s work on moral
development were interviews with individuals of different ages. He
presented children with some dilemmas and asked what the main actor
should do. Different from Piaget view and conduct.

 In social dilemmas, there was a moral situation being presented and

the most famous one was “Heinz Model”.
 After reading the story, interviewees are asked a series of questions
about the moral dilemma.
 They were also asked to evaluate the moral dilemma situation and the
scoring was done afterwards and was a complex type of scoring.

 A type of moral maturity is also tested after answering those

questions about social dilemma.
 From the answers interviewees gave for this and other moral
dilemmas, Kohlberg discovered three levels which consist of 6 stages
of moral development.
 A key concept in understanding progression through the levels is that
people’s morality becomes more internal or mature.

 The age range which he studied was 10, 13 and 16 year old.

 3 stages occur in childhood which focused more on ideal reciprocity-

When we do something for the another person’s interest.

 In adolescence, 4th stage develop move from ideal reciprocity to

societal rules and norms.

 Then after this, Kohlberg extend his theory to 5th and 6th stage.
 KOHLBERG STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Kohlberg’s Level Pre conventional reasoning is the lowest level in Kohlberg’s

1: Pre theory of moral development. At this level, moral reasoning
conventional is strongly influenced by external punishment or reward
Reasoning

STAGE 1-
Difficult to consider two points simultaneously in a moral
Punishment and dilemma. They focus more on fear of authority and to avoid
obedience punishment.
Orientation He also give two examples, “ PROSTEALING” AND
“ANTISTEALING”

STAGE 2- The Children now develop understanding that everyone can have
Instrumental
different perspectives about various things. And a reciprocity
Purpose Orientation
occurs.
Kohlberg’s Level Conventional reasoning is the second, or intermediate, level in
2: Conventional Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. In conventional
Reasoning reasoning, individuals develop expectations about social roles.

Stage 3- The They have desire to obey rules and promote social harmony
Good Boy-Good which will appears in the context of close social ties.
Girl orientation Individuals want to maintain social ties and be a good person.

Stage 4- The Social- Here, not only close social ties are important, but also
order maintaining individual takes larger perspective in terms of societal laws.
Orientation
Kohlberg’s Level
3: Post Post conventional reasoning is the highest level in Kohlberg’s
conventional theory of moral development. At this level, morality involves
Reasoning flexible thinking and is more internalized.

Stage 5- The Social Here, the consider laws as flexible and can be changed for
Contract furthering human purposes and also imagine alternative for
Orientation social order.

Stage 6- The
This is the highest stage and here right action is base on self
Universal Ethical chosen codes and principles and self-chosen ethical
Principle principles of conscience that are valid for humanity and
Orientation law.
 SOME INSIGHTS ON KHOLBERG STAGES

 Age-Related Changes- His theory was totally consistent with the age related
changes. A classic longitudinal study shows that there is a strong correlation between
age and moral judgment maturity. It also states that moral reasoning development is
slow and gradual.

 This approach applies the concepts of equilibrium and conflict that Piaget used
to explain cognitive development. By presenting arguments slightly beyond the
person’s level of moral reasoning, the researchers created a disequilibrium that
motivated the person to restructure his or her moral thought.

 Cognitive Prerequisites For Moral Reasoning- Cognitive and perspective-

taking capacities are very important in moral development in addition with
reorganization of thought is also necessary.
 Kohlberg’s Critics
*Kohlberg’s theory has provoked debate, research, and criticism . Key Criticisms are as
follows:-

*Moral Reasoning and Moral Behavior- Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for
placing too much emphasis on moral reasoning and not enough emphasis on moral
behavior (Walker, 2004). Moral reasons can sometimes be used as a shelter for
immoral behavior. For eg, Whatever the latest public scandal, you will probably find
that the culprits displayed virtuous thoughts but engaged in immoral behavior.

*Conscious/Deliberative Versus Unconscious/Automatic- Social psychologist

Jonathan
Haidt (2006, 2013, 2018) argues that in Kohlberg’s theory, individuals spend too much
time deliberating and contemplating in their reasoning before they decide on a stance

*The Role of Emotion- Kohlberg avoided studying emotion, However, increasing

evidence indicates that emotions play an important role in moral thinking .
*Gender and the Care Perspective- The most publicized criticism of Kohlberg’s by Carol
Gilligan argues that Kohlberg’s theory reflects a gender bias. She state that Kohlberg’s theory is
based on a male norm. In contrast with Kohlberg’s justice perspective, the care perspective is a
Moral perspective, she state that he greatly underplayed the care perspective, Perhaps because
he was a male, because most of his research was with males rather than females, and because
he used male responses as the primary source for his theory Perspective.

*Culture and Moral Reasoning- Kohlberg emphasized that his stages of moral
reasoning are universal, but some critics claim his theory is culturally biased. One
review of 45 studies in 27 cultures around the world, mostly non-European, provided
support for the universality of Kohlberg’s first two levels (Snarey, 1987). As Kohlberg
predicted, individuals in diverse cultures developed through these first two levels in
sequence. Level 3, however, has not been found in all cultures.

*Families and Moral Development- Kohlberg argued that family processes are
essentially unimportant in children’s moral development. Like Piaget, he argued that
parent-child relationships usually provide children with little opportunity for give-and
take or perspective taking because of power relationships. Rather, Kohlberg said that
such opportunities are more likely to be provided by children’s peer relations.
 HOW ONE DECIDE BETWEEN RIGHT OR
MORAL THOUGHT WRONG?
 Piaget’s Theory
*Interest in how children think about moral issues was stimulated by Piaget (1932),
Who extensively observed and interviewed children from the ages of 4 through 12.

*Piaget concluded that children go through two distinct stages in how they think
about morality:
A) From 4 to 7 years of age, children display heteronomous morality,
the first stage Children who are in this stage of moral development think of justice and
rules as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people.

B) From 7 to 10 years of age, children are in a transition showing some features of the
first stage of moral reasoning and some features of the second stage, autonomous
Morality.

C) From about 10 years of age and older, children show autonomous morality. They
become aware that rules and laws are created by people, and in judging an action,
they consider the actor’s intentions as well as the consequences.
Characteristics of Autonomous and Heteronomous thinker
*They judge the rightness or goodness
of behavior by considering its
consequences, not the intentions of the
actor.
*Believes that rules are unchangeable
and are handed down by all-powerful
authorities.
* Believes in immanent justice, the
concept that if a rule is broken,
punishment will be meted out
immediately.
*As children develop into moral
autonomists, intentions assume
paramount importance
*Older children—moral autonomists—
accept change and recognize that rules
are merely convenient conventions,
subject to change.
*They recognize that punishment
occurs only if someone witnesses the
wrongdoing and that, even then,
punishment is not inevitable
 MORAL BEHAVIOR

*Basic Processes- The processes of reinforcement, punishment, and imitation have

been invoked to explain how individuals learn certain responses and why their
responses differ from one another’s.
When individuals are reinforced for behavior that is consistent with laws and social
conventions, they are likely to repeat that behavior. Also, when individuals are
punished for immoral behaviors, those behaviors can be eliminated. . And when
provided with models who behave morally, individuals are likely to adopt their actions.
In one study, 2-year-olds watched a video of an adult engaging in pro-social behavior in
response to another person’s distress (Williamson, Donohue, & Tully, 2013).

*Resistance to Temptation and Self-Control- When pressures mount for individuals to

cheat, lie, or steal, it is important to ask whether they have developed the ability to
resist temptation and to exercise self-control argues that self-control is strongly
influenced by cognitive factors. Researchers have shown that children can instruct
themselves to be more patient and, in the process, show more self-control.
 SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
 Social Cognitive Theory The role of cognitive factors in resistance to temptation and self-
control illustrates ways in which cognitions mediate the link between environmental
experiences and moral behavior (Grusec, 2006, 2020). The relationships between these three
elements—environment, cognition, and behavior—are highlighted by social cognitive theorists.

 The social cognitive theory of morality emphasizes a distinction between an individual’s

moral competence (ability to perform moral behaviors) and moral performance (performing
those behav- iors in specific situations) (Mischel & Mischel, 1975). Moral competencies
include what individuals are capable of doing, what they know, their skills, their awareness of
moral rules and regulations, and their cognitive ability to construct behaviors. Moral
competence is the outgrowth of cognitive-sensory processes. Moral performance, or behavior,
however, is determined by motivation and the rewards and incentives to act in a specific moral
way.

 Albert Bandura (2002, 2015)also stresses that moral development is best understood by
considering a combination of social and cognitive factors, especially those involving self-
control.
 WE WILL STUDY
MORAL THE CONCEPT OF
MORAL FEELING
FEELING THROUGH THESE
PERSPECTIVES:
PSYCHO ANALYTIC THEORY
MORAL FEELING
-INCLUDES
 T
ROLE
-INCLUDES ROLE OFOF EMPATHY
EMOTIONS IN MORAL
EMOTIONS IN
DEVELOPMENT

MORAL CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVE

DEVELOPMENT
 PSYCHO ANALYTIC THEORY
 - According to sigmund freud the very feeling of GUILT &
DESIRE TO AVOID FEELING GUILTY is the foundation for
moral behaviour
 SUPER EGO IS ADVOCATED BY THE MORALITY PRINCIPLE.
it consists of two components. folowing are those :-

SUPER-EGO

EGO IDEAL CONSCIENCE

- Rewards the child by
-punishes the child for
conveying a sense of pride &
personal value when child acts
behaviours disapproved by the
according to the ideal standard parents,
approved by parents making the child feel guilty.
HOW DOES IT DEVELOP?
PROCESS OF INTERNALIZATION

The fear of losing their parents love & being punished for their
unacceptable sexual attraction towards the opposite sex parent creates
anxiety, in order to avoid punishment & maintain parental affection the
child identifies with the same sex parent. Through this identification,
children internalize the parents standard rights and wrongs, which
reflect societal prohibition- hence the super ego develops.

Child turns inward the hostility that was previously aimed externally at
same sex parent, this inwardly directed hostility is then experienced
unconsciously as guilt.
Contemporary view stresses that rooted in close relationships,
children construct their self understanding and understanding
of others- which inturn is also linked to their emotions.
(Thompson, 2014)

 a study by KOCHANSKA & colleagues (2002) observed

106 preschoolers in laboratory sitautions in which they were
led to believe that they had damaged valuable objects.
Children of mothers who used power oriented discipline
(spanking, slaping or yelling) displayed less guilt.

In another study kochanska and woodland, others (2010),

stated that children with a history of stronger internalization
of both parents’ rules were more competent & better
socialized.
 EMPATHY
Empathy is
 an affective response to anothers’ feelings with an
emotional response that is similar to other persons feelings.

Empathy has
 an cognitive component- the ability to discern
anothers inner psychological states.

Infants
 have the capacity for some purely empathic responses,
but for effective moral action, children must learn to identify a
wide range of emotional state in others & to anticipate what
kinds of actions will improve another persons’ emotional state.
William damon’s stages of empathy development :

Age Period Nature of Empathy

Early infancy Characterized by global empathy, the young infant’s empathic response
does not distinguish between feelings and needs of self and others.

1 to 2 years Undifferentiated feelings of discomfort at another’s distress grow into

of age more
genuine feelings of concern, but infants cannot translate realization of
others’ unhappy feelings into effective action.
Early childhood Children become aware that every person’s perspective is unique and that
someone else may have a different reaction to a situation. This awareness
allows the child to respond more appropriately to another person’s
distress.

10 to 12 years Children develop an emergent orientation of empathy for people who live
of age in
unfortunate circumstances—the poor, the handicapped, and the socially
outcast. In adolescence, this newfound sensitivity may give a
humanitarian
flavor to the individual’s ideological and political views.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SYMPATHY
AND EMPATHY?

SYMPATHY Empathy is an affective

refers to the response to anothers’
emotional feelings with an
response towards emotional response that
a person in which is similar to other
the individual feel persons feelings.
sad and
concerned about
the person.
 CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVE ON ROLE OF EMOTION
IN MORAL DEVELOPMENT

 Modern child developmentalists believe that both positive feelings- empathy, sympathy,
admiration & self esteem and negative feelings- anger, outrage, outrage, shame and guilt
contribute to childrens’ moral development.

 For instance, sympathy leads the observer feel sad or concerned about persons well-being. A
study by ongley & matti predicted young childrens’ sympathy and nature of sharing.

 Empathy, shame, guilt & anxiety over other peoples violations of standards are present early
in development and they undergo changes throughout childhood & beyond ; these connections
between emotions can influence moral development.

 Moral emotions are inextricably interwoven with cognitive & social aspects of childrens
development i.e they provide a natural base for childrens’ acquisition of moral values,
motivate them to pay close attention to moral events.
 MORAL PERSONALITY
 THIS IS COMPARTIVELY A RECENT STUDY INVLOVED IN DOMAINS OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT.

 THOUGHTS, BEHAVIOUR, & FEELINGS CAN BE ALL BE INVOLVED IN AN

INDIVIDUALS MORAL PERSONALITY.

 THERE ARE 3 ASPECTS OF MORAL PERSONALITY;

MORAL MORAL
IDENTITY CHARACTER

MORAL EXEMPLARS
 MORAL IDENTITY MORAL CHARACTER
-INDIVIDUALS HAVE A MORAL - JAMES REST STATED THAT - MORAL EXEMPLARS ARE
IDENTITY THAT HAVE MORAL MORAL CHARACTER
NOTIONS & COMMITMENTS INVOLVES HAVING THE
THAT ARE CENTRAL TO THEIR STRENGTH OF OUR
LIFE. (WALLAR,2014) CONVICTIONS,PERSISTING
& OVERCOMING
-DARCIA NARVAEZ STATED DISTRACTIONS AND
THAT A MATURE MORAL OBSTACLES.
INDIVIDUAL CARES ABOUT
MORALITY & BEING MORAL IS - MORAL CHARACTER - ONE STUDY BY MATSUBA
CENTRAL TO THEIR IDENTITY. PRESUPPOSES THAT THE
PERSON HAS SET MORAL
-THESE INDIVIDUALS ENGAGE GOALS & ACHIEVING
IN MORAL METACOGNITION , THOSE GOALS INVOLVES
SELF REFLECTION WHICH THE COMMITMENT TO ACT
INCLUDES CRITICAL IN ASSOCAITION WITH
EVALUTION OF ONES SELF THESE GOALS.
JUGDEMENTS & EFFORTS TO
MINIMIZE BIAS AND SELF - ACCORDING TO WALKER,
DECEPTION ASPECTS LIKE HONESTY,
TRUTHFULNESS,COMPASSI
ON, THOUGHTFULNESS
PROVIDE A POSITIVE
FOUNADTION TO SOCIAL
REALTIONSHIPS.
MORAL EXEMPLAR
PEOPLE WHO HAVE A
MORAL PERSONALITY,
IDENTITY, CHARACTERS
& SET OF VIRTUES THAT
REFLECT MORAL
EXCELLENCE AND
COMMITMENT.
AND WALKER IN 2004,
STUDIED 40 YOUNG ADULTS
ON BASIS OF THEIR MORAL
COMMITMENT TO VARIOUS
SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS
AND COMPARED THEM TO
OTHER YOUNG ADULTS WHO
MATCHED IN AGE, AND
OTHER VARIABLES. THESE
EXEMPLARS WERE MORE
ADAVANCED IN MORAL
REASONING, FURTHER
ALONG IN DEVELOPING AN
IDENTITY, AND MORE LIKELY
TO BE IN CLOSE
REALTIONSHIPS.
 SOCIAL DOMAIN THEORY

 Theory that identifies different domains of social knowledge,

reasoning, including moral, social conventional & personal
domains.
These domains arise from children and adolescents attempts to
understand & deal with different forms of social experiences.
Social domain theory stresses that children, even very young
ones, are motivated to evaluate and make sense of their social
world.
This theory emphasizes that key aspects of morality involves
judgments about welfare, justice & rights as well as struggles that
individuals have with moral issues in their social lives.
 IMPORTANT ASPECTS IN THE SOCIAL DOMAIN
THEORY:
SOCIAL
CONVENTIONAL
REASONING:
•Focuses on conventional
rules established by social
consensus
&conventions
•The central aspect of this
aspect of theory is
maintenance of social
system.
•These rules are arbitrary in
nature, for instance,
following a queue.
MORAL PERSONAL
REASONING: DOMAINS:
•Focuses on ethical issues •These are not
& rules of morality. governed by moral /
•Moral judgments involve
social norms.
concepts of justice. •These are subjective
•These rules are
obligatory in nature and in nature, for
instance, control of
widely accepted.
•For instance, physically ones own body,
assaulting a person is privacy or choices of
prohibited universally. friends.
Development of Adult ( early ,
middle and late adulthood)
Emerging adulthood
Term for the transition from adolescence to adulthood (18-25 years) that is
characterised by experimentation and exploration

Who is an adult
Determining just when individual becomes an adult is difficult
Some makers include
● Marriage
● Full time job
● Economic independence
● Self responsibility

Adjustment strategies for emerging adulthood

Experiment and explore responsibilities
Develop intellectual assets, Create psychological and social assets
Adult periods of development

Early adulthood- begins in late teens and 20s and lasts through
the 30
● It is time of establishing personal and economic
independence
● Develop a career
● Selecting a mate
● Learning to live with someone in an intimate way
● Starting a family
● Rearing children
Physical development in early adulthood

Physical performance and development

● Most of us reach our peak levels of physical performance before the age of 30,
often between the ages of 19 and 26 . This peak of physical performance occurs
not only for the average young adult but for outstanding athletes as well.
● Decline in physical performance.
● Muscle tone and strength usually begin to show signs of decline around the age
of 30 .
● Sagging chins and protruding abdomens also begin to appear .
● The Lessing of physical abilities becomes a common complaint among the just
turned 30s.

Health
● Have higher mortality rates than adults .
● Although emerging adults have a higher death rate than adolescents , they also
have few chronic health problems and fewer colds and respiratory problems .
● Engagement on Bad health habits during adolescence increases during
emerging and early adulthood which if not improved impairs the health of an
individual as he ages.
● It can be improved by changing , improving and adapting a healthy lifestyle.
Eating and weight
● Obesity becomes a serious and pervasive problem during adulthood.
● Being overweight and obese results in risk of hypertension, diabetes and
cardiovascular diseases.
● Also associated with mental health problems .
● Factors involved in obesity are heredity, leptin, dieting , set point , metabolism
and environment factors.

Regular exercise .
● Helps to prevent chronic disorders such as heart disease and diabetes.
● Recommend that young adults engage in 30 minutes or more of aerobic
exercise a day .
● Benefits mental health along with physical health

Substance abuse
● Alcohol :Binge drinking increases in college. It's more common in men than
men and students living away from home .
● Alcoholism - is a disorder which involves a long term repeated uncontrolled
compulsive and excessive use of alcoholic beverages that impair the drinkers
health and social relationship .
● Cigarettes and nicotine
Cognitive development

1. Jean piaget view 1952,

● He stated that In each stage of cognitive development people think in a
qualitatively different way
● He argued that 11-15 years of age adolescents enter the formal
operational stage which is characterised by being more logical, abstract
and idealistic . .
● He stressed that young adults are more quantitatively advanced in their
thinking .
● Some theorist state that young adults move into a new qualitative stage
of cognitive development, post formal thought which is Reflective ,
realistic and contextual ,Provisional and is thus Recognised being
influenced by emotions ..
● Research found that young adults are more likely to engage in post
formal thinking than adolescents
 Creativity
● Early adulthood is a time of great creativity for some people .
● Studies found that most creative people were generated in their thirties
and most important creative contributions were completed by age of 50.
● Therefore creativity peaks in adulthood often in the forties and then
declines.

Social emotional development

● Temperament- in early adulthood , most individuals show fewer
emotional mood swings than they did in adolescence,
● They become more responsible and engage in less risk taking
behaviour.
● Studies reveal some continuity between certain aspects of
temperament in childhood and adjustment in early adulthood.
● Attachment- like temperament attachment appears during infancy and
play an important part in socio emotional development.
● Adults count on their romantic partners to be a secure base to which
they can return and obtain comfort and security in stressful times .
● Studies reveal that young adults who were securely attached in their
romantic relationship were more likely to describe their early
relationship with their parents as secure. All of this depends on the
three attachment styles ( secure , avoidant and anxious attachment
style .
● Majority of adults describe themselves as securely attached and not
surprisingly adults prefer having a securely attached partner.
● Individual enters the erikson's intimacy versus isolation stage
( development task of forming intimate with others or becoming socially
isolated)
● In grappling with momentous choices, emerging adults play a more
active role in their own development than at any earlier time
Middle adulthood

● It is the development period that begins approximately at 40-45 years

of age and extends to 60-65 years of age .
● It’s the time of declining physical skills and expanding responsibility, a
period in which people become more conscious of the young old
polarity and the shrinking amount of time left in life , a time when they
seek to transmit something meaningful to the next generation, a time
when people reach and maintain satisfaction in their careers.
● In short . Middle adulthood involves balancing work and relationship
in the midst of the physical and psychological changes associated
with aging
 Physical development
● Physical changes :
○ The most viable signs are of physical appearance.
○ The skin begins to wrinkle and sag because of loss of fat and collagen in
underlying tissue .
○ Some localised areas of pigmentations in the skin produce age spots especially in
areas that are exposed to sunlight
○ Hair becomes thinner and frayed due to loose replacement rate and a decline in
melanin production .
○ Fingernails and toenails develop ridges and become thicker and more brittle.
○ Individuals lose height in middle age and many gain weight .
○ Obesity increases from early to middle adulthood.
○ Maximum physical strength is attained in the 20s. The term sarcopenia is given to
age related loss of muscle mass and strength
● Vision of an individual experiences sharpest decline between 40 and
59 years of age. They have problems viewing close objects .
● Hearing can also start to decline by age of 40 .
● High pitch sounds are typically lost first .

Cardiovascular changes
● High blood pressure, high cholesterol and cardiovascular disease.
● Metabolic syndrome : hypertension, obesity and insulin resistance.
● Exercise weight control and a diet rich in fruits, vegetables and whole
grains can often help.

● Lungs : Lung tissue becomes less elastic at about age 55, decreasing
the lungs capacity.
● Sleep . Wakeful periods become more frequent during the 40s.
● Sleep disordered breathing and restless legs syndrome .
● Health disease, stress and control
● Chronic disorders: are characterised by a slow onset and a long duration
● It’s rare in early adulthood but increases in middle age.

● Stress and disease

● Stress is increasingly identified as a factor in many diseases and it takes a toll
on the health of individuals by the time they reach middle age.
● Stress and the cardiovascular system: stress and negative emotions can
affect the development and course of cardiovascular disease by altering
underlying physiological processes.
● The immune system and stress: immune system keeps us healthy by
recognising foreign materials such as bacteria , viruses and tumours and then
destroying them. Immune system functioning decreases with normal aging .
● Culture and health- culture plays an important role in coronary disease . Cross
cultural psychologists maintain that’s studies of immigrants she’s light on the
role culture plays in health.
● Control - diseases increase in middle age but then declines in late adulthood.
 Mortality rates
● Chronic diseases are the main cause of death during
middle adulthood.
● Heart disease and cancer for example

Sexuality
● Climacteric : midlife transition in which fertility declines
● Menopause: cessation of a woman's menstrual periods .
● Perimenopause- transitional period from normal menstrual
period to no menstrual period .
● Erectile dysfunction affects approximately 50 percent of
men to 70 years of age.
 Cognitive development
John L Horn argues that some intellectuals abilities
decline in middle age but others increase
● Crystallised intelligence- individual accumulated
information and verbal skills increases
● Fluid intelligence- one’s ability to reason abstractly
begins to decline in middle adulthood

The Seattle longitudinal study that involves extensive evaluation of intellectual abilities
during adulthood was initiated
K. Warner Schaie 1996 found that two intellectual abilities ( numerical and perceptual
speed) declined in middle age and four intellectual skills ( vocabulary , verbal memory,
inductive reasoning and spatial orientation) improved after early adulthood
Information processing approach provides another way of examining cognitive abilities the
changes that take place in this during middle adulthood are
Speed of information processing which according to the Seattle longitudinal study states that
perceptual speed begins to decline in early adulthood.

Memory: Verbal memory declines during middle adulthood.

It happens when individuals don’t use effective memory strategies such as organisation and
imagery.

Expertise- because it takes long to attain knowledge. Expertise often shows up more in
middle adulthood than in early adulthood .
They rely on their accumulated experience to solve problems , they often process information
automatically and analyse it more efficiently when solving a problem in their domain .

Practical problem solving - everyday problem solving is another important aspect of

cognition which sees a decline as they grow older .
Social emotional development
● Generativity- the conscious of being in the middle of one's life and question about
meaning of life are themes of middle adulthood
● Generativity versus stagnation - erikson's seventh stage , in which individuals
leave a legacy of themselves to the next generation or do nothing for the next
generation
● Middle age adults can develop generativity through
1. Biological generativity- giving birth to an infant
2. Parental generativity - providing nurturance and guidance to children
3. Work generativity- developing skills that are passed down to others
4. Cultural generativity- creating of conserving an aspect of culture
Midlife crisis

● Levison 1978 interviews middle aged men and identified four conflicts
● Being young versus being old
● Being destructive versus being constructive
● Being masculine versus being feminine
● Being attached to others versus being separated from them
● Other research indicate only 10 percent of people experienced a
midlife crisis
Late Adulthood
Period that begins in the 60s and last until death
Time of :
● Adjusting to retirement
● Decreasing strength and health
● New social roles
● Reviewing one's life
Physical Development
The shrinking , slowing brain : On average , the brain loses 5 to 10 percent of its weight between the
ages of 20 to 90 .
● Brain volume also decreases, due to shrinkage of neuroma , lower number of synapses, reduced length of
axon.

The adapting brain : the aging brain has remarkably adaptive capabilities.
● Even in late adulthood it loses only a portion of its ability to function and activities older adults engage in can
influence the brain's development .
● Researchers have found that neurogenesis , the generation of new neurons
● There is dendritic growth

Sleep : around 50 percent of adults complain of having sleeping difficulty ,

● It can result in earlier death and is linked to lower level of cognitive functioning.
● Several strategies are used to help adults sleep better , for example avoiding caffeine , staying physically
active during the day, limiting naps .
 The immune system - it declines in functioning with age, due to extended
duration of stress and malnutrition involving low levels of proteins .
● This exercise improves the immune system and influenza vaccination is
important .
● Physical appearance and movement: wrinkles and age spots are the most
visible changes.
● Weight drops after age of 60 , due to muscle loss
● Adults get shorter with aging due to bone loss in their vertebrae .
● Older adults move more slowly.

Sensory development
● With aging visual acuity, color bison , depth perception declines . Several
diseases of the eye also may emerge in aging adults such as cataracts ,
glaucoma , macular degeneration.
● Hearing impairment usually does not become much of an impediment until late
adulthood .
● Hearing aids and cochlear implants can minimise the problems linked to
hearing loss.
● Smell and taste losses typically begin about age 60 .
● Due to decreased sensitivity to pain , adults can cope with disease and injury .
The circulatory system and lungs - in this cardiovascular disorders increase in late
adulthood.
● High blood pressure is linked with several factors such as illness , obesity, anxiety , lack
of exercise .
● The capacity of the lung drops 40 percent between the ages of 20 and 80 . It can be
improved with diaphragms strengthening exercises.

Sexuality
● Orgasm becomes less frequent in males with age.
● Many are sexually active as long as they are healthy.
Cognitive development
Multidimensional and multidirectional

● Cognitive mechanics are the hardware of the mind and reflect the
neurophysiological architecture of the brain developed through evolution .
● It consists of components such as speed accuracy of the processes involved in
sensory input , attention , visual and motor memory , discrimination comparison
and categorisation.
● Because of the strong influence of biology heredity and health on cognitive
mechanics their decline with age is likely.
● Cognitive pragmatics are culture based software programs of the mind . It
includes reading writing skills, language comprehension educational qualification
professional skills . Because of the strong influence of culture on cognitive
pragmatics, their improvement in old age is possible
● Speed of processing information declines in late adulthood.
● Changes in attention are important aspects of cognitive aging , researchers found that
older adults are less able to ignore distracting than younger adults and this distractibility
becomes more pronounced as attention increases.
Memory -
● Episodic memory- younger adults have better episodic memory
● Semantic memory- does not decline as drastically as episodic memory
● Decline in working and perceptual speed
● Explicit and implicit memory are likely to be adversely affected with aging than the former.
● Source memory and prospective memory failure increases with age in the adult years .
● No cognitive factors- health education and socio economic status can influence an older
adult's performance on memory tasks , although such non cognitive factors as good
health are associated with less memory decline in older adults, they do not eliminate
memory decline. tion
 ● Executive functioning ; aspects of working memory that exorcists decline in
older adults involve ; updating memory representations that are relevant for the
task at hand.
● Replacing old no longer relevant information
● High levels of wisdom are rare in adulthood.
● Late adolescence and early adulthood is the main age window for wisdom to
emerge
● Cognitive neuroscience and aging .
● Cognitive neuroscience is the discipline that studies links between the brain and
cognitive functioning
● Changes in the brain can influence cognitive functioning and changes in
cognitive functioning can influence the brain

As an individual ages into late adulthood, psychological and cognitive changes

can sometimes occur. A general decline in memory is very common, due to the
decrease in speed of encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. Healthy adults
typically exhibit decreases in performance across many different cognitive abilities
such as memory, processing speed, spatial ability, and abstract reasoning.
Abnormal Loss of Cognitive Functioning During Late Adulthood
Dementia is the umbrella category use to describe the general long-term and
often gradual decrease in the ability to think and remember that affects a person’s
daily functioning

Delirium, also known as acute confusional state, is an organically caused decline

from a previous baseline level of mental function that develops over a short period
of time, typically hours to days

Alzheimer’s disease (AD), also referred to simply as Alzheimer’s, is the most

common cause of dementia, accounting for 60-70% of its cases. Alzheimer’s is a
progressive disease causing problems with memory, thinking and behavior.
Symptoms usually develop slowly and get worse over time, becoming severe
enough to interfere with daily tasks
Social emotional development
● Interfaith versus despair - erikson's late adulthood stage in which individuals
engage in a life review that is either positive or negative
● Emotional sensitivity allows elders to detach from experiences in order to choose better how
to respond. Younger people are more impulsive emotional in their coping and problem-
solving. Elders are better at emotional self- regulation.
● Life review involves looking back on one's life experience and evaluating them . It’s
part of coming to terms with one’s life choices and experiences
● Older adults report experiencing more positive emotion and less negative emotion
Self regulation
● As individuals get older they face losses so they are likely to adjust best when they:
● Reduce performance in areas they are not competent ( selectivity)
● Perform in areas in which they can still function effectively (optimisation )
● Compensate in circumstances with high mental or physical demands
( compensation)
 ● Religion - can provide important psychological needs in older adults
1. Help them face impending death
2. Find and maintain a sense of meaningfulness in Life
● Accept inevitable losses of old age . Religion has been shown to be related to a sense
of well being and life satisfaction
● The more active and involved older adults are the more satisfied they are and the
more likely they are to stay healthy

Facing one's own death

Elisabeth Kubler Ross 1969 - five stages of dying
● Denial and isolation
● Anger
● Bargaining
● Depression
● Acceptance
CONTRIBUTIONS

STAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY, ADOLESCENCE- PRAGYA KAPUR

EARLY, MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD- BAREERA

NADEEM HUSSAIN

Early, middle and late adulthood- Laxmi

DOMAINS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT BY ISHIKA

KAHNDELWAL, SHRIYA PRASHANT HATIPKAR AND
VANI SABHARWAL