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GIunit 3
GIunit 3
GIunit 3
Management
UNIT 3
Introduction
• Geoinformatics has been described as "the science and technology dealing with
the structure and character of spatial (relating to space) information, its capture,
its classification, its storage, processing, portrayal and dissemination, including the
infrastructure necessary to secure optimal use of this information”. Geomatics is a
similarly used term which encompasses geoinformatics, but geomatics focuses
more so on surveying.
• Geoinformatics has at its core the technologies supporting the processes of
acquisition, analysis and visualization of spatial data (any type of data that directly
or indirectly references a specific geographic area).
• GIS also favours an interdisciplinary approach to the solution of problems. Going
beyond conventional spreadsheet and database tables, it helps us discover and
visualize new data patterns and relationships which would have otherwise
remained invisible.
• Many fields benefit from geoinformatics, including urban planning and land use
management, in-car navigation systems, virtual globes, land surveying, public
health, military, agriculture, meteorology and climate change, business location
planning, telecommunications, aviation, biodiversity conservation and maritime
transport.
• Geoinformatics becomes very important technology to decision-makers across a
wide range of disciplines, industries, sectors and agencies. Many government and
non government agencies started to use spatial data for managing their day-to-
day activities.
• Geo-informatics, which combines satellite geodesy (Geodesy is the science of
accurately measuring and understanding three fundamental properties of the
Earth: its geometric shape, its orientation in space, and its gravity field— as well
as the changes of these properties with time.), information technology and
Geographical Information System (GIS), are comparatively new technologies
which can assist in all phases of disaster and disaster management viz. (1)
prediction, (2) prevention, monitoring and warning system (3) assessment of
damages and (4) post-disaster management.
• Despite the tremendous potential of Geo-informatics applications in disaster
management the technology is yet to be used optimally by the decision makers.
Ironically Geo-informatics is yet limited in our country as a research subject.
• Geo-informatics constituting Remote Sensing, GIS (Geographical Information
System) and GPS (Global Positioning Service) are very effective tools for
forecasting, monitoring and assessment of pre, during and post disasters in a
particular region by utilizing prior information and developing appropriate
strategies.
• For example use of spatial information to make decisions regarding targeting the
affected population, demarcating the affected area, relief material distribution
and holistic management.
• Search and rescue teams used GPS, GIS and remote sensing technology to create
maps of the disaster areas for rescue and aid operations, as well as to assess
damage. Another important area of disaster relief is in the management of
wildfires.
Importance of geoinformatics
• Big geospatial (relating to location) and temporal (relating to time) data has become
infused into many aspects of our daily lives. Analysis of such data is used, for
example, to better understand and manage natural and built environments,
investigate the spread of disease, locate services, guide route selection or mine the
big data of social media to understand human behaviour, mobility and
communication patterns. In response, worldwide expenditures on geospatial
technologies are large and rapidly increasing.
• Geoinformatics has emerged as a field of study that is focused on basic questions
about the acquisition, storage, management, analysis and visualization of geographic
information within Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Geoinformatics
researchers develop new computational, visual, analytical, and statistical methods to
process, analyze and understand big geospatial and temporal data.
• Through the development of new theories and methodological tools, geoinformatics
helps to support basic scientific inquiry as well as help address complex social and
environmental challenges (e.g., climate change, public health, migration,
transportation safety, and security).
• Geoinformatics research contributes to the development of various location-aware technologies
such as Global Positioning Systems (GPS), the Internet of Things ( the term IoT refers to the
collective network of connected devices and the technology that facilitates communication
between devices and the cloud, as well as between the devices themselves), mobile sensors,
and remote sensing,
• Applied geoinformatics, in the form of geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing
software, is used to support research in an increasingly wide range of disciplines that includes
the arts, humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, health sciences, and engineering.
• The growing importance of geoinformatics beyond academia is evidenced not only by the
proliferation of location-based services offered as phone and tablet apps and used by
consumers everywhere, but also by the prominent role it plays in the daily activities of
government agencies and private enterprises throughout the world
• The realm of Geoinformatics is very broad because it comprises of subjects like Remote sensing,
GPS, GIS, cartography, hydrology, climatology, Aerial photography, photogrammetry etc.
Tools/Branches of Geoinformatics
1. GIS
2. GPS
4. Geodesy: It is that branch of geology which studies the shape of the earth and
the determination of the exact position of geographical points.
5. Photogrammetry: It refers to the method of surveying or map making by
photography and also used in determining the height and motions of clouds,
sea waves. It describes from three words- 'photo-light'; 'gram-drawing';
‘metry-measurement'.
• GIS helps in navigating the directions, locating the places, measuring the
distance. In respect of the locations and directions one can make every
possible use of GIS. It is useful for various sectors like Government, Travels and
tourism, and many more. Disaster management system also uses the GIS to
make us aware about any kind of natural disaster like flood, earthquake,
cyclone etc. So let us check the usage of GIS in Disaster Management.
In summary, the use of GIS data has a profound impact on business and industry, as well as on the general
public. If the technology were eliminated, we would realize to a great extent the overarching importance
of GIS data in our daily lives and in work.
Advantages of GIS
1. It can process multiple data formats and data sets. For example, Satellite
images, vector data points like coordinates, latitude, and longitude drive files
from drones and high sensors cameras.
2. GIS can be integrated with various hardware and software to create a robust
environment.
3. This system can analyze past data sets and analytics on future predictions based
on the trends.
4. It is used for natural resource management by analyzing, managing, and
monitoring natural hazards.
5. It is highly efficient when it comes to data collection, processing, and
visualization.
6. It allows easy record keeping of geographical changes for further analysis.
Disadvantages of GIS
1. GIS often requires trained candidates from the field of Geology, bioinformatics or
Information technology. Non – GIS person will end up ruining the setup
completely.
2. It is incomplete without the available meaningful spatial datasets and databases.
3. People and organizations complain about GIS being very expensive for
implementing and integrating.
4. It requires a large amount of data to be inputted into the system, and hence, there
are more chances of errors.
5. Most of the time organizations fail to implement fully functioning GIS.
6. Data privacy and integrity is an important asset of GIS. It has more risks when it
comes to privacy violation.
Disaster Management System
• Mitigation: It is the discipline of dealing with and avoiding risks. It is a
discipline that involves steps taken to contain or reduce the effects of an
anticipated or already occurred disastrous event.
• Preparedness: It is how we change behavior to limit the impact of disaster
events on people.
• Response: An effective plan for public health and other personnel during a
disaster would outline activities designed to minimize the effects of the
catastrophe. These efforts can be summarized as- closely situation analysis
and response.
• Disaster Recovery: The aim of the recovery phase is to restore the affected
area to its previous state. Recovery efforts are concerned with issues and
decisions that must be made after immediate needs are addressed.
Disaster Management is done by following steps:
4.Field Operations
Field data is very important in GIS applications and Mobile GIS provides crucial
information. Field teams capture information and send it back to the user. So ground
information is useful for recognizing actual event conditions. Then new data can be
send to operation teams in the field (where the disaster occurs), so they have the
information possible for protecting lives and providing safety to people. Whether it’s a
response or recovery phase, Mobile GIS provides the right information.
Important objectives of GIS database generation are:
Disaster managers from different states, cities, village level use GIS database for
disaster planning.
Preparedness for disasters and making a plan.
Forecasting and early warning of a disastrous event.
For relief management, rescue operations.
• With the help of Remote Sensing & GIS techniques, floods can be predicted. National
Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) & State Disaster Management Authority
(SDMA) utilized remote sensing techniques in combination with GIS/Photogrammetric
technology for Effective & Economic way of management of disasters.
• GIS technology plays a key role in identifying flood-affected locations and providing
shelter for affected people. In addition to that, the suitable places for constructing the
retaining wall structures and an alternate route for draining the stormwater.
• This process also helps to create different levels of vulnerability maps which indicate
the areas that are frequently affected by floods and base maps to show the location
and setup of boats and the rescue team’s plans.
• The 3-Dimensional of Flood simulation results will give more strong information to
understanding the disaster impacts quickly.
Earthquakes
• It is one of the oldest enemies of humankind and now it is possible to map and
analyze earthquakes in a detailed manner. GIS supports national, regional, and
local emergency organizations in planning and managing preparatory programs.
• The vision of remote sensing and GIS technology is to visualize the critical
vulnerabilities & damages and reduce the impact of the disaster. The GIS
Technology results could be responded to quickly during the disaster.
• Experience has shown that earthquake deaths can increase due to secondary
disasters such as tsunamis and fires. Buffer analysis serves as a good remedy to
reduce vulnerabilities to predict the damage that could be caused by a tsunami.
The GIS-based Network analysis tool is used to identify the location and routes
that provide the fastest response to emergency needs like a hospital, fire station,
and so on.
• The GIS-based application also acts as a collective platform for data gathering
around the incident of infrastructure damage or fire and information
dissemination to relief teams involved in providing aid to those affected by the
disasters.
Cyclones
• It is the most destructive force of nature, causing widespread loss. Remote Sensing technology
is used to monitor & collect accurate information for the entire earth (globe) concerning the
topography and meteorological/climate data. The Temporal data of the same place has
become strong and dominant in determining as well as forecasting the natural calamities for
the environment & ecosystem protection and development.
• GIS technology has been vital for emergency preparedness through planning & execution and
has saved many lives in previously occurred cyclones. It has improved certain extended limits
like environmental understanding, strategic decision making, monitoring of climate change
impact, and ascertaining future risks.
• It uses mathematics functional algorithms to analyze the geo-spatial data and display the
output in a visual format. The data is visualized and their patterns and relationships can be
identified.
• Government agencies, as well as NGOs that support disaster management, can benefit from
this technology because they know which regions are most affected.
Landslides and Avalanches
• The historic data can be accessed by GIS technology and it will give more
awareness to society when the government sectors/rescue teams display the
vulnerability maps and announce the Risk time by the climates.
• The spatial analysis such as developing different theme maps like Elevation,
Slope, Aspect, and Hill shade using terrain analyst which is very useful in landslide
& Avalanches disaster prediction.
Accidental disasters
• Accidental disasters occur due to the following reasons: Process and safety
systems failures, Human/Technical/Management errors, the Induced effect of
natural calamities, Hazardous waste processing/ disposal, and Terrorist attacks/
unrest leading to sabotage. The accidental disaster hotspot identification of the
location uses GIS, GPS, and Telecommunication Technology. The high user
interface of mobile-based applications has integrated the technology to provide
effective and economical safety to society.
•GIS solutions for different hazards
•1. Earthquake
GIS can be useful for monitoring historical sites of the earthquake also for Response &
data management for recovery.
It’s also useful for Impact assessment.
•2. Flood
Flood mapping from Macro level to Micro level.
Flood Zone mapping.
Detecting Potential Site of Flood in reference with rainfall
Elevation Mapping
Preparing Response map in response to managing after flood situations
Remote Sensing
• Remote sensing is the process of detecting and monitoring the physical
characteristics of an area by measuring its reflected and emitted radiation
at a distance (typically from satellite or aircraft). Special cameras collect
remotely sensed images, which help researchers "sense" things about the
Earth.
• Remote sensing is one of the methods commonly used for collecting
physical data to be integrated into GIS. Remote sensors collect data from
objects on the earth without any direct contact. They do this by detecting
energy reflected from the earth, and are typically mounted on satellites or
aircraft.
• Remote sensing technology has become much more prevalent, accurate
and accessible in recent years, and covers a wide range of engineering
applications.
• Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or
phenomenon without making physical contact with the object, in contrast
to on-site observation. The term is applied especially to acquiring
information about Earth and other planets.
• Natural disasters are common occurrences that result from natural causes like
floods, volcanoes, earthquakes, etc. Disaster management is a general term
used to stand for processes involved in strategic planning and procedures
administered in controlling occurrences of natural disasters. Remote sensing
techniques can be effective in reducing the risks of disasters and helps in the
identification of hazards zone and causes. Thus, this technology plays magic in
the prevention and management of natural disasters. In disaster
management, remote sensing has various applications:
Relief operations
After any natural disaster, many areas are inaccessible, which poses a great challenge in assessing
and managing the damage. However, the remote sensing technique got the operation covered. It
assists in disaster assessment and monitoring as it is sky-based, thus providing important
information in relief monitoring operations.
Wildfires
Forest fire is a type of disaster that may result in a great loss if not controlled. Thus proper
protection needs to be laid down to avoid fire attacks. Remote sensors are used as a warning tool
for early warning systems and provide information on the areas affected by the fire. The early
warning enables people to have suitable plans to extinguish the fire and thus hindering its spread.
Floods management
During rainy seasons, many places get flooded, and immediate action is needed to
rescue the vulnerable group. On-site observation of the affected area may be possible
as all the land has water, and therefore an alternative method is required. The remote
Sensing technique fits best in such a situation; since it is sky-based, it may take an
image on the earth and hence initiate rescue missions.
Drought prediction
The rise in the earth’s temperature may result in drought and other high temperature-
related defects. However, sensors may be used to predict the temperature rise. Since
they are sky-based, they are able to measure the temperature of the reflected
radiation from the earth’s surface; the information obtained may be compared with
the previous ones. In case of an increase in temperature, a warning is passed to the
vulnerable group, and relevant activities are taken to reverse the temperature rise.
Identification of hazards zones
Not all areas are likely to experience natural defects, while others experience
natural disasters more frequently than other zones. Therefore, in identifying
areas that are vulnerable to natural disasters, the remote sensing technique is
widely used. It provides information such as intervals between one occurrence
of the disaster and the other, the type of disaster commonly affecting the area,
and the vulnerable areas. The information provided by the sensors is of great
importance as it is used to relocate people during disaster periods.
Resource allocation
The government also relies greatly on this technique to fund and support people
affected by the disaster. Here, sensors are used to examine the affected groups and
areas for easier allocation of funds, minimizing fraud and misuse of public funds.
1. A larger area can be sensed remotely in a very easy way and the whole data can
be easily processed and analysed fast by using the computer and that data is
utilised for various purposes.
2. Data Collection is really very easy over a variety of scales and resolutions.
3. Remote Sensing can allow repetitive coverage which generally comes manually
when collecting data on dynamic themes like water and Agriculture field
4. It is easier to locate floods or forest fire that has spread over a large region which
makes it easier to plan a rescue mission easily and fast.
5. A single image captured through remote sensing can be analyzed and interpreted
for use in various applications and purposes. There is no limitation on the extent
of information that can be gathered from a single remotely sensed image.
Disadvantages of Remote sensing
1. Remote Sensing requires one special type of training for analysing the images.
It is therefore expensive in the long run to use remote sensing technology since
extra training must be accorded to the users of the technology.
2. The biggest disadvantage is its cost. It is one of the expensive methods of
analysis and hence it is not used to analyse the small area
3. Again it is one of the expensive methods to analyse repetitive photographs.
4. The information provided by remote sensing data may not be complete and
may be temporary.
5. Sometimes large scale engineering maps cannot be prepared from satellite data
which makes remote sensing data collection incomplete.
GPS
• GPS, which stands for Global Positioning System, is a radio navigation
system (the application of radio frequencies to determine the position of
an object on Earth) that allows land, sea, and airborne users to determine
their exact location, velocity, and time 24 hours a day, in all weather
conditions, anywhere in the world. The capabilities of today’s system
render other well-known navigation and positioning technologies
impractical and obsolete. GPS is used to support a broad range of military,
commercial, and consumer applications.
• The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a U.S.-owned utility that provides
users with positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) services. This system
consists of three segments: the space segment, the control segment, and
the user segment. The U.S. Space Force develops, maintains, and operates
the space and control segments.
1. The space segment: The GPS space segment consists of a constellation of
satellites transmitting radio signals to users. The United States is
committed to maintaining the availability of at least 24 operational GPS
satellites, 95% of the time.
2. The control segment: The GPS control segment consists of a global
network of ground facilities that track the GPS satellites, monitor their
transmissions, perform analyses, and send commands and data to the
constellation.
3. The user segment: Like the Internet, GPS is an essential element of the
global information infrastructure. The free, open, and dependable nature
of GPS has led to the development of hundreds of applications affecting
every aspect of modern life. GPS technology is now in everything from
cell phones and wristwatches to bulldozers, shipping containers, and
ATM's.
• The GPS service is controlled by the United States government, which can selectively
deny access to the system, as happened to the Indian military in 1999 during the Kargil
War, or degrade the service at any time. As a result, several countries have developed or
are in the process of setting up other global or regional satellite navigation systems. The
Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) was developed
contemporaneously with GPS, but suffered from incomplete coverage of the globe until
the mid-2000s. GLONASS can be added to GPS devices, making more satellites available
and enabling positions to be fixed more quickly and accurately, to within two meters
(6.6 ft). China's BeiDou Navigation Satellite System began global services in 2018, and
finished its full deployment in 2020. There are also the European Union Galileo
navigation satellite system, and India's NavIC. Japan's Quasi-Zenith Satellite
System (QZSS) is a GPS satellite-based augmentation system to enhance GPS's accuracy
in Asia-Oceania, with satellite navigation independent of GPS scheduled for 2023.
Application of GPS in disaster management
• GIS is useful for hazard zone mapping and during emergency conditions mitigation of people
can easily possible using these maps. GIS and RS are much beneficial in mitigation strategies
and preparedness plans. Real-time geographic data can improve the allocation of resources
for response. GIS technologies are much useful in the modeling of disaster risks and human
adaptations to hazards. It also provides a decision support system in disaster management.
Disaster management has two stages which are Pre-Disaster and Post-Disaster stage.
Pre-Disaster Stage: Mitigation and Preparation process activities need to be planned to reduce the
impact of the disaster.
• Phase 1 – Mitigation: Minimize the effects of the Disasters before their occurrence.
The Central /State Government or local rescue teams take action to save people’s lives, and
properties, to reduce the consequence of disasters with help of Geo-Information data. The objective
of the Mitigation process is preserved in an optimum way using GIS Technology by adoption and
enforcement of land use & zoning practices, implementing and enforcing building codes, Raising of
homes in flood-prone areas, and Awareness Program. The Government sector tremendously works in
disaster mitigation plans with help of GIS-based forecasted disaster maps efficiently. Making short &
long-term continuous preparation of mitigation plans to minimize the impact of the disaster will
need to identify the critical areas by its interactive visualization in a geospatial optimized mode.
Central or local rescue teams are ready to prepare an emergency operation plan with a disaster
response checklist for communities and data share across both government and non-governmental
agencies. The development of the geospatial database for infrastructure, and the asset locations,
such as generators, construction machinery, medical resources, and shelters.
Post-Disaster Stage: Response and recovery measures are being taken to return to normal
life.
• Phase 3 – Response: Emergency assistance
In the event of a disaster, people need emergency assistance after the disaster, geospatial
data can be used to determine the answers to user questions regarding emergencies like
health center operations, temporary potential shelter locations, and so on. The central / state
government or relief team address/respond to all those in need of help during the time of
the fight against a disaster with of help of GIS Technology.
• Phase 4 – Recovery: Back to Normal Life after the occurrence of the Disaster Event
The Government provides support to the affected people during the disaster to bring them
into their day-to-day routine life using support in an economic, social, and environmental
way. GIS provides short-term goals such as environmental monitoring of affected sites,
tracking of rehabilitation processes, and economical support for rapid recovery processes.
The establishment of Long term vision has to make better recovery & rebuild work and
mitigation plans along with GIS technology.
Concluding of Role of GIS in Disaster Management
GIS technology helps identify disasters before they occur, using forecasts or risk
zone maps.
The GIS Technology is combined with Global Positioning System (GPS), which will
help to receive/update the help from disaster rescue teams.
GIS for Disaster Management uses remote sensing data to forecast climate
conditions and climate anomalies at any given point by latitude-longitude
coordinates.
The alternate routes can be created by using Disaster Management technology i.e. GIS
for rescuing from disasters.
The details of the disaster like the occurred place, severity level, and how many areas
are affected & disaster directions all will be mapped using GIS Technology.
The GIS Maps will also give historical/past disaster events details, from this disaster
management action will be taken more strongly.
The Risk zone map of disasters may reduce the vulnerability of the disasters.
• All disasters are spatial in nature. Most of the time, they are unplanned
occurrences that happen as accidents.
• Furthermore, disasters are unavoidable in nature and affect all aspects of the
human sectors from the social, economic and environmental sectors.
• Disaster management is the organization and management of the available
resources for dealing with all aspects of emergencies to lessen the impact of the
damage caused.
• GIS in disaster management acts as a tool for supporting decisions. The
application of GIS in disaster management helps in understanding the nature of
the disaster and this helps in solving complex management problems.
• In addition to that, decisions can only be made by analyzing the different
Geographic Information System layers.
• Management and planning of disasters, as well as handling disastrous conditions
are currently useful, with the help of geo-spatial and socio-economic data.
1. Preparedness for a disaster
The awareness and preparedness of disaster is one crucial area. Some of the crucial questions that
arise from this area include; what is the total number of people in the affected area? What is the
location of the buildings and infrastructure around that area? The number of people at risk and the
evacuation time and technique? What are some of the structures that can be used as shelters?
These questions come up anytime a disaster strikes a particular area and location. The database of
critical facilities such as hospitals, police stations, ambulances, fire stations, and schools can be
built up by GIS and remote sensing techniques. This is helpful for planning purposes.
7. Flood mapping
This is one of the most frequent and costly natural disasters all over the world. Floods occur
because of economic loss and the hardship that human beings have to go through. Lately, the
flood management team has increased its interest in obtaining a reliable flood map. The
preparation of these flood maps is the latest concern of any flood management team. Various
approaches have been already taken for possible flood mapping. The most important indicator
of the management of floods is the depth of the flood. Consequently, identifying the flood
depth helps in formulating Geographic Information Systems, which will, in turn, be essential in
determining the depth and the level of harm that flood has caused. In addition to that, using
GIS in this scenario helps in saving more life because human presence will not be needed in the
disastrous area. GIS provides real-time data which is essential in response, recovery and
decision making.
To conclude..
• The space technology and disaster mitigation communities work together in
developing effective and accurate methods for prevention, preparedness and relief
measures.
• Disaster prevention is a long-term phenomenon, which can best be studied with the
help of satellite monitoring of various relevant factors, such as, changing land use.
• Disaster preparedness focuses on warnings and forecasts of impending disasters
and often entails processes, which are quite dynamic and result in "rapid onset"
disasters. Most disasters are of this type although some, such as drought and
famine are slow to develop.
• The obvious difference between warnings and forecasts is that the latter is less
specific in time and space.
• Disaster relief occurs after (and sometimes during) the emergency.
• An important aspect in terms of satellite monitoring involves assessment of the
damage incurred during the disaster.
• Satellite technology can also help in identifying escape routes and locations for
storage of temporary housing.
• The pressure on the earth's resources caused by increased population has
resulted in increased vulnerability of human and their infrastructure to the
natural hazards.
• Recurring occurrences of earthquakes, floods, landslides and forest fires need to
be studied using today’s advanced technology to find effective preventive
measures.
• Space technology can help the disaster mitigation process through better future
scenario predictions; detection of disaster prone areas; location of protection
measures and safe alternate routes etc.
• Post-disaster satellite data acquisition helps in disaster recovery; damage claim
process and fast compensation settlement.
• Various satellites and sensors on-board provide with numerous possibilities of
analyzing the data for disaster prediction and mitigation purposes.
• Impact of land use on natural disasters and ability to predict them would be one
of the main contribution of remote sensing technology in this century.
• Integration of remote sensing with GIS and web technology makes it an
extremely powerful tool to identify indicators of potential disasters.
• Information sharing through Internet reduces data acquisition time and thus
providing efficient way to carry out real time disaster predictions (floods, forest
fire, tsunami and hurricane etc.).
• The beneficiaries of new technology are almost everyone, namely, the people,
government, and private insurance industry. It is crucial to know which of the
areas are at high risk and which ones are at relatively lower risk.
• Investment towards making use of the space technology is worth because
improvement in instrumentation and real time prediction will bring about
reduction in disaster damages; better prediction; accurate and timely damage
estimation; and improved decision making in planning stages.
• Remote sensing or Earth Observation System (EOS) and GIS are among many
tools available to disaster management professionals today making the effective
project planning very much possible and more accurate now then ever before.
• In disaster management, the aim of the experts has been to monitor the
situation, simulate the complicated natural phenomenon as accurately as
possible so as to come up with better prediction models, suggest appropriate
contingency plans and prepare spatial databases.
• The remotely sensed data can be used very effectively, for:
• Quickly assessing severity and impact of damage due to flooding,
earthquakes, oil spills and other disasters;
• Planning efficient escape routes from coastal areas during hurricane season;
• Charting quickest routes for ambulances to reach victims;
• Locating places for shelter for victims or refugees
• Calculating population density in disaster-prone areas;
• Rapidly identifying hardest-hit disaster areas in order to provide early warning
of potential disasters;
• Pre-disaster assessments to facilitate planning for timely evacuation and
recovery operations during a crisis;
• Monitoring reconstruction or rehabilitation after a major disaster; and
• Developing, maintaining or updating accurate base maps.