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Lecture 2 PEF 303
Lecture 2 PEF 303
• Specific heat has an important role in determination of energy cost and for the
dimensions of machinery and equipment that are needed in thermal processes.
• Furthermore, specific heat (Cp) of food materials changes according to their
physical and chemical properties.
• The thermal conductivity (k) of food determines how fast heat can be evenly
transferred to the entire food mass, which in turn affects the quality of the final
product.
• When heating and cooling of materials involves unsteady state or transient heat
conduction, the material temperature changes with time and knowledge of the
thermal diffusivity (a) is required for predicting temperature in these processes.
Specific heat
• Heat required to raise the temperature by 1°C for unit mass of the body.
• The heat required to heat a material of mass M from an initial
temperature T1 to final temperature T2 is equal to the product of the
mass x specific heat x (T2 – T1).
• A heat balance for heating or cooling a material can not be attempted
without knowledge of the heat capacity of the material.
• Specific heat is given in kJ/kgoC and it is measured using a
calorimeter.
• Specific heat of frozen foods is much lower than that of not frozen foods.
This is because specific heat of ice is only half of that of water.
• The specific heat of wet agricultural material is the sum of specific heats of bone
dry material and its moisture content.
• If Cd and Cw are the specific heats of bone dry material and water respectively, and
m is the moisture content of the material in percent wet basis, then the specific
heat can be expressed as given below.
• The above relationship exists above 8% moisture content of the grain only.
• The specific heat of bone dry grain varies from 0.35-0.45 k cal/kg°C.
• The specific heat is measured by calorimeter, generally a simple thermos vacuum
bottle.
• The differential scanning - calorimeter (DSC)is suitable for measuring the specific
heat.
Thermal Conductivity (Jm-1s-1oC-1):
• This is the measure of materials ability to conduct heat.
• In foods the thermal conductivity depends mostly on composition, but also on any factor that
affects the heat flow paths through the material, such as percentage void space (porosity)
moisture content, shape, size, arrangement of void spaces, homogeneity, orientation of fibers and
chemical composition.
• The amount of heat Q that flows through a slab of material of
thickness x having a thermal conductivity k is calculated as Q = kA∆T
• where A is the surface area of the material normal to direction of heat flow and
• ∆T = (T1 -T2) are the surface temperature of the material.
• Thermal conductivity of agricultural materials is measured using the thermal conductivity probe.
• Line heat source probes are used frequently for agricultural materials.
• The thermal conductivity of single grain ranges from
0.3-0.6 kcal/m.hr.°C and bulk grain varies from 0.10-
0.15 kcal/m.hr.°C.
• The difference is due to the air spaces present in the
bulk grain.
• The thermal conductivity of air is 0.02 kcal/m.hr.°C.
Thermal Diffusivity (m2/s):
• Thermal diffusivity is used in the determination of heat transfer
rate in solid foods of any shape.
• Physically it relates the ability of a material to conduct heat
to its ability to store heat.
• It may be calculated as thermal conductivity divided by the product
specific heat and mass density or it may also be measured by transient
heating technique.
• Thermal diffusivity generally tends to vary in a similar manner as thermal
conductivity
FRICTIONAL PROPERTIES
• A number of relationships depending on the geometry of the body exist to compute the drag
coefficient of agricultural materials. However, for laminar flow the drag coefficient can be
estimated as:
Wheat 9-11.5
Barley 8.5-10.5
Corn 34.9
Soybean 44.3
Rye 8-5-10.0
Oats 8.0-9.0
• Angle of repose: The angle of repose is the angle between the base
and the slope of the cone formed on a free vertical fall of the granular
material to a horizontal plane.
• The size, shape, moisture content and orientation of the grains affect
the angle of repose.
• Kinetic friction: It may be defined as the friction forces existing between the
surfaces in relative
motion.
• If F is the force of friction and W is the force normal to the surface of contact,
then the
coefficient of friction ‘f’ is given by the relationship
F
f = ----
W
The coefficient of friction may also be given as the tangent of the angle of the
inclined surface upon which the friction force tangential to the surface and the
component of the weight normal to the surfaces are acting.
Grain Angle of repose, degree
Wheat 23-28
Paddy 30-45
Maize 30-40
Barley 28-40
Millets 20-25
Rye 23-28
• Coefficient and Angle of Internal Friction
The engineers generally assume that both the angle of repose and angle of
internal friction are same.
Some investigators have indicated that for sorghum, the angle of repose
and angle of internal friction are different.
If one is used in place of other to design any system, it will lead to error.
Some investigators also attempted to develop a relationship between angle
of repose and angle of internal friction so that by the simple test of angle of
repose, the angle of internal friction could be estimated.
But the results revealed that the two angles run almost parallel to each
other for various moisture content levels, thus no simple relationship
existed by which angle of internal friction could be estimated from
angle of repose within a reasonable accuracy.
The angle of repose is generally higher than angle of the internal friction
for the grains of approximately the same moisture content and density.