SED SCI 311

BIOCHEMIS
TRYREPORTERS:

GROUP 3
LEAH MARIE FERMIN
ANGELINE JUSTO
JOMARK JIMENEZ
JONDEY ESPIRITU
JOHN CARLO GUILLERMO
ARRANGE ME !
• Read the description and arrange the
jumbled letters.
• You only have 15 seconds to answer each
items.
• Raise your pens if you are done; and
• Observe silence.
1

CCUELNI IADC
It is naturally occurring chemical compounds
that serve as the primary information
carrying molecule in cells.

NUCLEIC ACID
2
XYICNUEDORILECBO DIAC
It serves as the genetic material for cells
both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
3
NUOBCCIELIR DICA
An important biological macromolecule
that is present in all biological cells.

RIBONUCLEIC ACID
4
LATENCR MAGOD
The important role of DNA in transfer of
information in living cells.

CENTRAL DOGMA
5
ITANOMUT
Result when changes occur in the
nucleotide sequence in DNA

MUTATION
NUCLEIC
ACIDS
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to;
a. Describe the basic structure and properties of nucleic
acids
b. Explain the structure and function of DNA and RNA
c. Explain the central dogma of molecular biology
d. Explain the process of DNA replication, transcription,
and translation in the protein synthesis.
e. Explain the types of mutation
BASIC STRUCTURE AND
PROPERTIES OF
NUCLEIC ACID
NUCLEIC ACIDS
It is naturally occurring chemical compounds
that serve as the primary information carrying
molecule in cells.
Nucleic acids are polymers made of monomers
called nucleotide; linked by phosphodiester
bond, therefore they are called polynucleotides.
 TYPES OF
NUCLEIC
ACIDS

DNA-
RNA-
Deoxyribonucleic
Ribonucleic acid
acid
NUCLEOTIDE
Each nucleotide consists of three components:
a. Nitrogenous group
b. Pentose sugar
c. Phosphate group
A. NITROGENOUS GROUP
1. PURINE BASES
Purines are larger, with a six membered ring fused to five
membered ring.
A. NITROGENOUS GROUP
2. PYRIMIDINE BASES
Pyrimidine has one six-membered ring of carbon and
nitrogen atoms.
B. PENTOSE SUGAR
The pentose sugar is either D-ribose or D-2-deoxyribose. DNA
contains D-2-deoxyribose and RNA contains D-ribose.
A pentose sugar is linked to a base (purine & pyrimidine) via
covalent N-glycosidic bond. The combination of sugar and base
is known as nucleoside.
B. PHOSPHATE GROUP
The third component of nucleic acids is phosphoric acid.
When this group forms a phosphate ester bond with a
nucleoside, the result is compound known as a nucleotide.
STRUCTURE OF NUCLEOTIDE
Nucleotides are phosphorylated nucleosides.
The phosphate group is attached to the nucleoside by an
ester linkage to the hydroxyl group of the pentose sugar.
 TYPES OF
NUCLEOTIDE

Deoxyribonucleotides Ribonucleotides
1. Deoxyribonucleotides:
These nucleotides contain
pentose sugar,
deoxyribose and are
monomeric units of
DNA.
2. Ribonucleotides: These
nucleotides contain
pentose sugar, D-ribose
and are monomeric units
of RNA.
Biologically Important Nucleotides
These are nucleotides involved in a various
biochemical processes.
Several nucleotides such as ATP, ADP, c-AMP,
GTP, GDP, c-GMP, UDP, CTP, CDP, etc.
ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)
ATP serves as the main biological source of
energy in the cell; is energy required as a source
of energy in several metabolic pathways, such as
fatty acid synthesis, glycolysis, gluconeogenesis,
etc.
AMP (Adenosine monophosphate)
AMP is the component of many coenzymes
such as NAD+, NADP+, FAD, coenzyme A,
etc.
• These coenzymes are essential for the
metabolism of carbohydrates, lipid, and
proteins.
C-AMP (cyclic- Adenosine
Monophosphate)
c-AMP is formed from ATP.
 c-AMP acts as a second messenger for many
hormones, e.g. epinephrine, glucagon, eth.
It inhibits the aggregation of blood platelets.
GDP (Guanosine diphosphate) and
GTP (Guanosine Triphosphate)
These guanosine nucleotides participate in
the conversion of succinyl-CoA to succinate,
a reaction which is coupled to the substrate
level phosphorylation of GDP to GTP in citric
acid cycle.
C-GMP (cyclic guanosine 3’ 5’-monophosphate)

c-GMP is an intracellular signal or second

messenger that can act antagonistically to c-
AMP.
UDP (Uridine diphosphate)

UDP participates in glycogenesis.

CTP (Cytidine triphosphate) and CDP (Cytidine
diphosphate)
CTP and CDP are required for the biosynthesis
of some phospholipids. CDP-choline is
involved in the synthesis of sphingomyelin
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
OF DNA AND RNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Serves as the genetic material for cells both
prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
In eukaryotes, DNA is located in the nucleus separated
from cytoplasm by the nuclear membrane. Because
prokaryotes lack internal membrane systems, their DNA
is not separated from the rest of the cellular contents.
Eukaryotic DNA is bound to proteins, forming a
complex known as chromatin.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
 DNA is naked. DNA bound to protein.
 DNA is circular. DNA is linear.
 Usually no introns. Usually has introns.
STRUCTURE OF DNA
Purine bases in DNA are adenine (A),
and guanine (G).
Pyrimidine bases are thymine (T) and
cytosine (C).
DNA is composed of two strands of
nucleotides held together by hydrogen
bonding. The strands each run from 5' to
3' and run in antiparallel,
or opposite, directions from one another.
FUNCTION OF DNA

1. It is the source of information for the

synthesis of all protein molecules of the cell.
2. It provides the information inherited by
daughter cells or offspring.
Chargaff’s Rule
Erwin Chargaff (1905-2002).
Chargaff’s rule : The ratio of
purine to pyrimidine bases in
the DNA is always one, i.e.
G+A : T+C = 1.
Watson-Crick DNA Double Helical
Structure
The double helix originally
proposed by Watson & Crick is
the most striking feature of
DNA structure.
DNA molecules have an
antiparallel structure - that is,
the two strands of the helix run
in opposite directions of one
another. Each strand has a 5'
end and a 3' end.
Watson-Crick DNA Double Helical
Structure
Adenine is always paired
with thymine by formation
of two hydrogen bonds.
Guanine is always paired
with cytosine by formation
of three hydrogen bonds.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

is an important biological macromolecule

that is present in all biological cells.
STRUCTURE OF RNA
The RNAs are single stranded.
RNA is an unbranched linear
polymer of ribonucleotides
joined by 3’, 5’ phosphodiester
bonds.
The phosphodiester bonds join
the 3’-OH group of ribose of
one nucleotide unit to the 5’-
OH group of ribose sugar of
the next nucleotide.
FUNCTION OF RNA

• It is principally involved in the synthesis of

proteins, carrying the messenger instructions
from DNA, which itself contains the genetic
instructions required for the development and
maintenance of life.
 TYPES OF
RNA

messenger ribosomal transfer RNA

RNA (mRNA) RNA (rRNA) ( tRNA)
messenger RNA (mRNA)
mRNA molecules are produced in the process called
transcription.
mRNAs serve as template for protein biosynthesis and
transfer genetic information from DNA to protein
synthesizing machinery.
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
rRNA are small spherical bodies located in the cells but
outside the nuclei. They consist of about 35% protein and
65% ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
Necessary to maintain ribosomal structure and also
participate in protein synthesis by binding of mRNA to
ribosome.
Recent studies suggest that ribosomal RNAs may also
provide some of the catalytic activities and thus is an enzyme
“a ribozyme”.
transfer RNA (tRNA)
tRNA are relatively small molecules containing from 73-
93 nucleotides per chain. There are at least one different
tRNA molecule for each 20 amino acids from which the
body makes it protein.
tRNA carries amino acids in an activated form to the
ribosome for the protein synthesis.
FUNCTION OF RNA
I. mRNA(messenger)
used as a template to make
proteins.
II. rRNA(ribosomal)
makes up ribosomes
III. tRNA(transfer)
matches amino acids to
mRNA to help make proteins.
CENTRAL DOGMA OF
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
CENTRAL DOGMA
It describes the flow of
genetic information in cells
from DNA to RNA to
protein.
It’s an important role of
DNA in the transfer of
information in living cells.
3 MAJOR STEPS IN PROCESSING
GENETIC INFORMATION
1. REPLICATION
The copying of parent DNA
to form daughter DNA
molecules having nucleotide
sequences identical to those
of the parent DNA.
Copying of DNA.
3 MAJOR STEPS IN PROCESSING
GENETIC INFORMATION
2. TRANSCRIPTION
The process in which the
genetic message in DNA are
rewritten in the form of
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Using DNA to make RNA.
3 MAJOR STEPS IN PROCESSING
GENETIC INFORMATION
3. TRANSLATION
The genetic message coded
by RNA is translated by the
ribosomes into the protein
structure.
Using RNA to make
protein.
DNA REPLICATION (DNA Synthesis)
 DNA is a major store of
genetic information.
 The duplication or
synthesis of DNA is
called replication.
 Results in
semiconservative.
 DNA
REPLICATION
PROCESS

Initiation Elongation Termination

DNA REPLICATION PROCESS
1. INITIATION
Proteins open up the double
helix and prepare if for
complementary base pairing.
2. ELONGATION
Proteins connect the correct
sequence of nucleotides on
newly formed DNA stand.
3. TERMINATION
Ends at the telomere region
of repetitive bases repeated
over and over again to the
end.
“Proofreading” checking
of errors; mismatched of
base pair
DNA REPLICATION PROCESS
DNA REPLICATION PROCESS
TRANSCRIPTION (RNA Synthesis)
 Is the process of making RNA strand from DNA strand.
 TRANSCRIPTION
PROCESS

Initiation Elongation Termination

TRANSCRIPTION (RNA Synthesis)
1. INITIATION 3. TERMINATION
These are known as the RNA polymerase encounters a
transcription start sites. terminator sequence and the
This acts as a template for a transcription stops. RNA
new mRNA strand. polymerase then releases the
DNA template.
2. ELONGATION
Ribonucleotides are added to
the template strand that enables
the growth of mRNA growth.
TRANSCRIPTION (RNA Synthesis)
TRANSCRIPTION (RNA Synthesis)
TRANSCRIPTION (RNA Synthesis)
RNA PROCESSING
 The transcribed RNA is
known as the pre-mRNA.
It is processed further to
convert it into mature
RNA.
 RNA
PROCESSING

Capping Polyadenylation Splicing

RNA PROCESSING
1. CAPPING
Addition of methylated
guanine.
It occurs at 5′ end of mRNA
transcript.
It protects the mRNA from
degradation.
RNA PROCESSING
2. POLYADENYLATION
The endonucleases cleave
the mRNA at a specific
sequence.
The enzyme polyA
polymerase facilitates the
addition of several adenine
nucleotides.
RNA PROCESSING
3. SPLICING
The non-coding
sequences, i.e., the
introns are removed by
spliceosome excision.
The coding sequences
or the exons join
together by ligation.
TRANSLATION (Protein Synthesis)
 Translation is the process by
which ribosomes convert the
information carried by
mRNA in the form of genetic
code to the synthesis of new
protein.
 The process of translation is
similar in prokaryotes and
eukaryotes. 
TRANSLATION (Protein Synthesis)
1. INITIATION
Protein synthesis begins with the formation of an initiation
complex. This complex involves the small 30S ribosome,
the mRNA template, initiation factors and a
special initiator tRNA.
TRANSLATION (Protein Synthesis)
2. ELONGATION
Elongation proceeds with charged tRNAs entering the A site
and then shifting to the P site followed by the E site with
each single-codon “step” of the ribosome. Ribosomal steps
are induced by conformational changes that advance the
ribosome by three bases in the 3′ direction. 
TRANSLATION (Protein Synthesis)
3. TERMINATION
Termination of translation occurs when a nonsense codon
(UAA, UAG, or UGA) is encountered.
 Upon aligning with the A site, these nonsense codons are
recognized by release factors in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
that instruct peptidyl transferase to add a water molecule to
the carboxyl end of the P-site amino acid.
This reaction forces the P-site amino acid to detach from its
tRNA, and the newly made protein is released.
TRANSLATION (Protein Synthesis)
TRANSLATION (Protein Synthesis)
GENETIC CODE
• Number of codons: There are 64
possible codon sequences.
• UAA, UAG and UGA do not
code for any amino acids, they are
called nonsense codons.
• Two amino acids methionine
(AUG) and tryptophan (UGC)
each have only one codon.
• The code is non-overlapping and
without punctuation. e.g. A U G C
U A G A C U U U is read as:
AUG / CUA / GAC / UUU
MUTATION
MUTATION
 Mutations in germ cells are
transmitted to the next
progeny and may give rise to
inherited diseases.
 Mutations in somatic cells
are not transmitted to the
progeny but are important in
the causation of cancers and
some congenital
malfunctions.
CAUSES OF MUTATION
 Errors in replication
 Error due to
recombination events
 Spontaneous change in
DNA
 Environmental factors
TYPES OF MUTATION
A. BASE SUBSTITUTION OR B. FRAME SHIFT
POINT MUTATION MUTATION
2 TYPES
1. Transition
2. Transversion
The point mutation can lead to:
1. Silent Mutation
2. Missense Mutation
3. Nonsense Mutation
A. BASE SUBSTITUTION OR POINT MUTATION

It occurs when only one

base in DNA is altered,
which may be transcribed
into mRNA and therefore,
may result in the translation
of a protein with an
abnormal amino acid
sequence.
Classified into two;
transition, transversion.
A. BASE SUBSTITUTION OR POINT MUTATION

Transition, in which one

purine is replaced by
another purine or one
pyrimidine is replaced by
another pyrimidine.
Transversion, in which a
purine is replaced by a
pyrimidine or a pyrimidine
is replaced by a purine.
A. BASE SUBSTITUTION OR POINT MUTATION

1. Silent mutation
Point mutations are said to be silent when there is no
detectable effect.
A. BASE SUBSTITUTION OR POINT MUTATION
2. Missense Mutation
Occur when a different amino acid is incorporated at the
corresponding site in the protein molecule.
It might be acceptable, partially acceptable or unacceptable
with respect to the function of that protein.
A. BASE SUBSTITUTION OR POINT MUTATION
3. Nonsense Mutation
Leads to the conversion of an amino acid codon to a stop
or nonsense codon.
B. FRAME SHIFT MUTATION

Occurs when there is

insertion or deletion of
one or two nucleotides in
DNA, that generates
altered mRNAs.
B. FRAME SHIFT MUTATION

1. Deletion frame shift

mutation
The deletion of a single
nucleotide from the coding
strand of a gene results in
an altered reading frame in
the mRNA.
B. FRAME SHIFT MUTATION

2. Insertion shift mutation

Insertion may be of one or
two nucleotides. As with
deletions, insertions of
nucleotides into genes can
lead to severe frame shift
mutations, e.g. thalassemia.
SUMMARY
Nucleic Acids- naturally occurring chemical
compounds that serve as the primary information
carrying molecule in cells.
Types of Nucleic Acid- DNA and RNA
Nucleotides- contains a nitrogenous base, a
sugar and a phosphate.
SUMMARY
Purine bases of DNA- adenine (A) and guanine (G)
and
Pyrimidine bases of DNA- cytosine (C) and thymine
(T).
RNA- uracil (U) instead of thymine.
DNA- has two strands by the pairing of bases A to T and
G to C, on complementary strands.
RNA- single stranded structure
SUMMARY
Three major types of RNA- mRNA, tRNA and rRNA.
Central dogma- important role of DNA in transfer of
information in living cells.
Replication is the process of synthesis/duplication of DNA.
Transcription is catalyzed by enzymes known as RNA
polymerases.
Translation is the process by which ribosomes convert the
information carried by mRNA to the synthesis of protein.
SUMMARY
Mutation- result when changes occur in the nucleotide
sequence in DNA.
Types of mutation- Point mutation and frame shift
mutation.
Point mutations result from single base substitution. It can
be transition or transversion type.
Frame shift mutations result from deletion or insertion of
nucleotides in DNA that generates altered mRNAs.
 Mabuhay
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