Computed Tomography

Computed Tomography
• Tomo: slice or section
• Limitations of conventional radiography:
1. Depth information is lost
2. Anatomical details of different organs(3D)
superimposed on a single plane
3. Inability to produce sectional image
• Tomography techniques have been developed
which separates these superimposed anatomical
details and produce slice images which convey
depth information
 Basic Principle
• Mathematical principles of CT were first
developed in 1917 by Radon

• Proved that an image of an unknown object

could be produced if one had an infinite
number of projections through the object
• Imaging reduces the 3D patient anatomy to a
2D projection image

• Density at a given point on an image

represents the x-ray attenuation properties
within the patient along a line between the x-
ray focal spot and the point on the detector
corresponding to the point on the image
• Limitation can be overcome, to some degree,
by acquiring two images at an angle of 90
degrees to one another
Example:
- Object made up from square blocks, five of
which have been removed to form central
cross
• X-ray projection that represent attenuated
radiation by the no. of block in the row
• Horizontal sums are shown on right and
vertical sums shown below
• Then all horizontal and vertical sums are
added to produce numerical reconstruction of
a object as shown below
10 9 7 9 10

9 8 6 8 9

7 6 4 6 7

9 8 6 8 9

10 9 7 9 10
• Then gray scale value assign to numbers to
produce image

• Image can be manipulated to highlight certain

area i.e. contrast can be adjusted
• For ex 10-white, 9-black or 7-white, 6-black
Tomographic images
• The tomographic image is a picture of a slab
of the patient’s anatomy
• The 2D CT image corresponds to a 3D section
of the patient
• CT slice thickness is very thin (1 to 10 mm)
and is approximately uniform
• The 2D array of pixels in the CT image
corresponds to an equal number of 3D voxels
(volume elements) in the patient
• Each pixel on the CT image displays the
average x-ray attenuation properties of the
tissue in the corresponding voxel
 Tomographic acquisition
• Single transmission measurement through the
patient made by a single detector at a given moment
in time is called a ray
• A series of rays that pass through the patient at the
same orientation is called a projection or view
• Two projection geometries have been used in CT
imaging:
– Parallel beam geometry with all rays in a projection
parallel to one another
– Fan beam geometry, in which the rays at a given projection
angle diverge
 Acquisition (cont.)
• Purpose of CT scanner hardware is to acquire a large
number of transmission measurements through the
patient at different positions
• Single CT image may involve approximately 800 rays
taken at 1,000 different projection angles
• Before the acquisition of the next slice, the table that
the patient lies on is moved slightly in the cranial-
caudal direction (the “z-axis” of the scanner)
 CT Generations
• Scanning system:
- acquire enough information to reconstruct a picture for an
accurate diagnosis
- Based on scanning methods there are different generations
of CT

1. First generation(Translate-Rotate)
2. Second generation(Translate-Rotate)
3. Third generation(Rotate-Rotate)
4. Fourth generation(Rotate-Fixed)
5. Fifth generation-EBCT
6. Sixth generation- Spiral CT
7. Seventh generation-MDCT
1st generation: rotate/translate, pencil beam
 1 generation (cont.)
st

• Used pencil-like X-ray beam

• It consist linear as well as rotary motion of X-ray tube and
detector
• One x-ray detector used
• Parallel ray geometry
• Linear motion was repeated over 180 times
• Between each of linear motion gantry rotate 1 degree
• Acquire 180 projections
• Axis of rotation pass through center of object
• X-ray beam ON: linear motion and OFF: rotary motion
 1 generation (cont.)
st

• Translated linearly to acquire 160 rays

• Total no. of rays or attenuation measurements
is 180 x 160 = 28,800
• About 4.5 to 5 minutes/scan
• For clinical study minimum 05 slices required
• Therefore total scan time = 5 x 5 = 25 minutes
• Patient should not move during scanning
otherwise cause blurring of image
 1 generation (cont.)
st

• Patient can stop head movements during

examination of head but not possible to
eliminate respiratory movement
• Therefore necessities that reduction of
scanning time to within breath holding time
• Objective of next generations
2nd generation: rotate/translate, narrow fan
beam
 2 generation (cont.)
nd

• Used narrow fan shape beam

• 30 detectors used
• Linear as well as rotation motion
• But 30 detectors gather more data per linear scan
• So few linear movements are needed to gather sufficient data
• Instead of moving 1 degree after linear scan gantry rotates up
to 30 degree
• Therefore total linear movements = 6 rather than 180 in first
generation
• 10-90 sec time is required
3rd generation: rotate/rotate, wide fan beam
 3 generation (cont.)
rd

• No translation motion
• Only rotation motion( 0-360 deg)
• Scan time is 4.9 sec
• Fan shape beam used
• Approximate 700 detectors used
• Multiple detectors are align along the arc of
circle whose center is X-ray tube focal spot
 3 generation (cont.)
rd

• Both X-ray tube and detector rotated along the arc of

circles whose center is approximately coincide with
center of patient
• Fan beam must cover complete object to be imaged
• X-ray tube was pulsed. Each pulse produced one
projection
• No. of scan lines in each projection is equal to no. of
detectors
• Sometime X-ray tube is continuously on and individual
projections are obtained by reading the output of
detectors of rapid intervals
4 generation: rotate/stationary
th
 4 generation (cont.)
th

• Detectors form a ring that completely surrounds the

patient.
• Detectors are stationary
• X-ray tube rotates in circle inside the detector ring
and X-ray beam is collimated to form a fan beam
• More than 2000 detectors used
• Each projection taken at slightly different angle
• Produced 1080 projections in one 360 deg rotation
 4 generation (cont.)
th

• Less complex to read detectors 1000 times in

1 sec than to pulse X-ray tube ON and OFF
1000 times in 1 sec
• Disadvantage is scatter radiation
• But minimized by using collimator for each
detector
• 1 sec time is required to produced image
5th generation: stationary/stationary
 5 generation (cont.)
th

• 3 and 4 generation scanners cannot achieve

scan time shorter than 1 sec because of
mechanical constraints
• Rotation of X-ray tube takes time
• Interest in faster scan time(less than 1 sec) for
imaging of moving structures, such as wall of
the heart or contrast material in blood vessels
and heart chambers
 5 generation (cont.)
th

• EBCT( Electron Beam Computed Tomography)

Or CVCT( Cardiovascular Computed
Tomography)
• Eliminate all motions of the X-ray tube or
detectors
• Magnetic focusing and deflection of an
electronic beam replaced X-ray tube motion
 5 generation (cont.)
th

• Three basic components

1. Electron gun , focusing and deflecting coils
2. Tungsten target ring (four, 180 cm diameter)
3. Ring of detectors
• Electron gun has thermionic cathode produce
electrons
• It is 320 cm long, accelerates electrons at 130 Kev
and focus beam onto one of four tungsten target
ring
 5 generation (cont.)
th

• Focusing coils are electromagnetic coils use to

focus electro beam on target ring
• Then focused electron beam deflects on large
tungsten area by deflecting coils
(electrostatic)
• Cause to produce X-rays in different directions
and then they collimated into wide fan beam
by a set of circular collimators
 5 generation (cont.)
th

• X-rays pass through the patient and is

detected by detectors ring consist two rows of
432 detectors each
• One scan can be obtained in 50 msec
 CT system
• Scanning system
• Processing unit
• Viewing part
 Slip- Rings Technology
• Problem of re-wounding of power cables
during scanning
• Input power applied to the transformer which
is located separately from gantry
• Then high voltage connected to metal brushes
• Metal brushes that make physical contact with
ring and transfer high voltage to X-ray tube
• Allows unlimited freedom of rotation
 CT Detectors
• Gas Filled or Xenon Detector
• Scintillation Detector
• Solid State Detector
Gas Filled Detector
Gas Filled detectors
• Use high-pressure (about 25 atm)
nonradioactive xenon gas, in long thin cells
between two metal plates
• Long, thin plates are highly directional
• Must be positioned in a fixed orientation with
respect to the x-ray source
 Gas Filled detectors (cont.)
• Radiation enters in thin cell cause ionization of
xenon gas molecules
• Produce + ve and –ve ions
• +ve ions moves towards cathode and -ve ions
move towards anode when low voltage applied
across anode and cathode
• Electrons collected by anode cause current flows
through it
• Strength of current depends upon no. of
electrons, depends upon energy of radiation
• Efficiency is low (50 to 60 %)
Scintillation detector
 Scintillation detectors
• Composed of a scintillator (scintillating crystal )
coupled tightly to a photo detector (typically a
photodiode)
• Scintillator emits visible light when an x-ray is
absorbed, similar to an x-ray intensifying screen
• Photo detector converts light intensity into an
electrical signal proportional to the light
intensity
 Scintillation detectors (cont.)
• Detector size typically 1.0 x 15 mm (or 1.0 x
1.5 mm for multiple detector arrays)
• Scintillators used include cadmium tungstate
CdWO4 , Cesium Iodide CsI and Bismuth
germinate Bgo.
• Better absorption efficiency than gas detectors
because of higher density
 Scintillation detectors (cont.)
• To reduce crosstalk between adjacent detector
elements, a small gap between detector
elements is necessary, reducing geometric
efficiency somewhat
• Top surface of detector is essentially flat and
therefore capable of x-ray detection over a
wide range of angles
• Required for 4th generation scanners and used
in most 3rd generation scanners as well
Solid-State Detector or Semiconductor
Detector
• Solid state detectors are modern semiconductor
instruments which use a reverse-bias p-n junction diode.
• When p type material is connected across –ve and n type
material is connected across +ve then creating much
thicker depletion region.
• Depletion region acts as a sensitive volume of the detector
• As a X-ray enter in depletion region, will create holes and
excess electrons.
• The electrons are then attracted to the n material, while
the holes move toward the p material.
• This creates a current pulse which can be measured using a
meter or counter.
• Silicon or Germanium material used
Advantages
• Superior energy resolution
• 100% efficiency
• Compact size
 CT number
• After the calculation of value for the
attenuation coefficient of each pixel, the value
is converted into a new number is called CT
number
• It allows computer to present information as a
picture with large gray scale
 CT number

• CT number = K (µP - µw)/ µw

K = Magnification constant
µP = Attenuation coefficient of pixel
µw = Attenuation coefficient of water
 CT number
• Why?
• µ1 = 0.35679 868
• µ2 = 0.35698 869
• µ3 = 0.35717 870
• µ4 = 0.35736 871
• µ5 = 0.35755 872

• Notice that change in µ take place in the forth

decimal place and we get different CT numbers for
each µ
• What is CT number of bone whose attenuation
coefficient is 0.38 cm-1 and attenuation
coefficient of water is 0.195 (magnification
constant = 1000)
• Ans = 948
Radon Transform
Radon Transform
Radon Transform
Radon Transform
Radon Transform
Radon Transform