WHAT RESEARCH?

WHAT IS RESEARCH?
• Research is a pervasive natural human activity.
• Research is the attempt to gain (more) knowledge about a
phenomenon.
• It is the gathering of information to gain insight into a situation, a
happening or behavior.
 DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH
• Research is the process of obtaining reliable solutions to problems
• It is a planned and systematic collection, analyzing and interpretation
of data to solve problems
• It is the use of scientific method to transform ideas, questions or
hypothesis into scientific knowledge that may be the solution to a
question.
 WAYS OF GAINING KNOWLEDGE
• Authority
• Tradition
• Method of Science
• Tenacity
• Common sense
• Media myth
• Personal experience
 KINDS OF RESEARCH
• Pure/Basic research
• Applied research
• Technical/business/operations research
• Action research
• Market research
• Scholarly or academic research
 VARIABLES AND DATA
• To gain knowledge about apparently haphazard
events, researchers collect information for variables,
which describe the event.
• A variable is a characteristic or attribute that can
assume different values.
• Variables whose values are determined by chance are
called random variables.
• Data are the values (measurements or observations)
that variables can assume.
 TYPES OF DATA

• Qualitative data
• Quantitative data
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
• Explorative research
• Descriptive research
• Comparative research
• Experimental research
• Longitudinal research
• Historical research
THEORY AND RESEARCH
 THEORY AND RESEARCH
• Theory is a system of inter-related abstractions and or ideas that
conclude and organize knowledge about the social world.
The linkage between theory and the social world
• Theory frames how we think about issues and concerns.
• It provides concepts, basic assumptions and directs us to important
questions and suggest ways to make meaning of the data collected
• Theory also connects a single study to a body of knowledge to
which other researchers contribute.
• Theory and research inform each other in that theories can be
tested in the field to assess whether they are true or false.
 THEORY AND THEORY BUILDING
• Theory is a system of rules and ideas connected by logical rules.
• Theories are also classified as scientific laws. They are expressed
under certain conditions as universal statements. For example: All As
are Bs;
• Theories help to explain the truth of an event or phenomenon. The
explanations are governed by logic.
• Theories follow from certain premises and followed from conclusions.
For example: All thieves are bad. Kweku is a thief so Kweku is bad.
• What is explained in theory must be logically deducible from the
empirically true statements about the central or initial conditions.
 FUNCTIONS OF THEORY
Hypotheses (concepts/models)
Research questions

Empirical
THEORY observations

L
pro ogica l ys is
ces l a
se s An
Empirical
generalizations
 FUNCTIONS OF THEORIES
• Theories narrow the range/focus of the facts to be studied.
• They help to define the kinds of facts that are meaningful and
pertinent for the study.
• Theories help to explain relationships between variables.
• They help to organise the information and data and the knowledge.
• They assist in classifying knowledge that is gained through research.
 IMPACT OF RESEARCH
• Research addresses basic needs
• It informs major social decisions
• It also establishes relationships that exist among
phenomenon and society
 PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL RESEARCH
There are 6 main principles followed in social research.
These are:
1. Precision in measurement
2. Replication
3. Validity
4. Reliability
5. Objectivity
6. Ethics
 THE SOCIAL RESEARCH PROCESS
• The Social Science Research method is also known as Transformation
process through research.
• The out come of transformative or social research is to add to
scientific knowledge.
• Research is the use of the scientific method to transform ideas,
questions or hypotheses into scientific knowledge that may be used
to solve a societal problem.
THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
 THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
• It details the plan of action for the research project
• Important for planning and funding the research
• Required prior to funding of project
• Prepared before the conduct of any research
• Uses verbs in the future tense
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL FORMAT
1. Title page
2. Abstract: A brief summary of main objectives and methodology for the research
3. Research Problem: Background information and Problem statement
4. Purpose:
i. Objectives (Main and specific)
ii. Research questions or hypothesis
5. Methodology (Research procedures)
6. Expected results (based on pilot study results)
7. Time schedules
8. Budget
9. References
10. Researcher’s resume
 THE PROCESS OF SELECTING A
RESEARCH TOPIC
One can get a research topic by any one of the following means:
• Assigned topics (A list is assigned by an instructor and the student is asked
select one. Assigned topics may be narrowed topics or general
• Field of study topics: The student may select the topic, but the there is the
stipulation that the topic must relate in a specific way to the course for which
the research paper is assigned.
• Free-choice topics: This gives you the freedom to investigate any area of your
choice.
 CRITIRIA FOR SELECTING A
RESEARCH TOPIC
• Personal experience
• Curiosity
• The state of knowledge in the field
• Solving a problem
• Social premium (hot topics)
• Personal values
1.CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
• Research design
• Population and Sampling technique
• Data collection methods
 WAYS OF SELECTING THE RESEARCH
TOPIC
1. RATIONAL THINKING
• Examining personal strengths and interests
• Looking at past research projects
• Discussions
• Searching the literature for gaps that needed filled

2. CREATIVE THINKING
• Keeping a notebook of ideas
• Exploring personal preferences, using past research projects
• Brainstorming
PARTS OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
 PARTS OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
1. CHAPTER ONE
• Introduction
• Background
• Research problem
• Research objectives
2. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW (Related existing literature in the field)
• Theories
• Empirical findings (How the theories are applied in similar subjects)
3. CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
• Research design
• Population and Sampling technique
• Data collection methods
4. CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
5. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
 QUALITIES OF A GOOD TOPIC
1. The topic will enable you fulfill the assignment
2. The topic interests you enough to work on it
3. The topic will teach you something
4. The topic is of a manageable scope
5. You can make a contribution to the topic
6. Enough information on the topic is available
7. The topic is suitable for your audience
8. The topic lets you demonstrate all your abilities that a research paper is meant
to show
 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
• A general objective: What the study seeks to do e.g.
The general/main objective of the study is to examine the factors that
influence the adoption of electronic banking and also the challenges
faced by Barclays Bank, Ghana Ltd.
• Specific objectives of the study
 To identify the various e-banking services by Barclays Bank, Ghana Ltd.
 To identify the factors influencing the adoption of e-banking services by the customers of the
bank.
 To explore the barriers and challenges faced by Barclays Bank, Ghana Ltd. in adopting e-banking .
 RESEARCH QUESTION

Research questions must mirror the research objectives (To do this,

turn the objectives into questions)
What are the various e-banking services by Barclays Bank, Ghana
Ltd.?
What are the factors influencing the adoption of e-banking services
by the customers of the bank?
What are the barriers and challenges faced by Barclays Bank, Ghana
Ltd. in adopting e-banking.
 STATING THE HYPOTHESIS
• Hypothesis testing is a decision-making process for evaluating a claim claims
about a population, based on information obtained from samples (Bluman,
2004).
• A statistical hypothesis is a guess about a population parameter.
• As with all guesses, it could be true or not true.
• Two types of hypothesis:
1. Null hypothesis: This is symbolized by H0 and states that there is no difference
between a parameter and a specific value, or that there is no difference between two
parameters.
2. Alternative hypothesis. This is symbolized by H 1 and states that there is a difference
between a parameter and a specific value or states that there is a difference between
two parameters.
 JUSTIFICATION AND OTHERS
• State the significance/justification/rational/importance of the study
• State a brief methodology
• Scope of the study
• Limitations of the study
• Organisation of the study
 JUSTIFICATION
This study owes its importance to the fact that University A is privately owned
and financed from private sources. The university therefore needs to operate
efficiently in order to attract and retain quality staff, meet their costs and make
some profit. A well-motivated and continuously developing teaching staff
would help attract a good number of students and thus make providing private
tertiary education a viable business.
It is hoped that the findings of this study would bring to the fore, how
performance appraisal can contribute to the staff development process in
University A, other private universities and other tertiary institutions of similar
status. It will also inform administrators in tertiary institutions of the need to
appraise and develop their staff in line with their institutions strategic plans. In
addition, the study would make significant contributions to the field of human
resource development in the study of the relationship between performance
appraisal and staff development in universities.
 A BRIEF METHODOLOGY
The study, which was exploratory, used a case study approach to study
the role of performance appraisal in staff development in University A.
Both primary and secondary data were collected and used. Primary
data were analyzed using SPSS version 20.
 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study covers only the role of performance appraisal in developing
the academic staff of private universities, using University A as a case
study. University A is chosen because it is a relatively new University
and prides itself on being an information and communication
technology driven institution with a mix of innovative courses that need
specific directions of staff development.
 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
There are several areas in university systems that need to be appraised
and developed. Some of those areas include administrators, lecturers,
courses, and other non-academic staff. The study is however limited to
the role of performance appraisal in staff development. The study,
being a case study of a private university, may not have general
application to all universities.
 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY
This study is organised in five chapters. Chapter One focuses on the
introduction, which covers background, statement of the problem, objectives of
the study, research questions, significance, scope, and organisation of the
study.
Chapter Two which deals with literature review discusses the concepts of
performance appraisal and staff development and their role in developing staff
of employees in general, and of university teaching staff in particular. Chapter
Three discusses the methodology of the study. It details the study area, design
study, study population, sample size and sampling procedure, data sources,
instrumentation, pre-test, field work, data processing and analysis. Chapter
Four presents results and discussion. Chapter Five presents summary,
conclusions and recommendations.
 THE LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review is a systematic examination of general information,
research studies data and theories which have been discovered over the years.
• Literature review looks at information already available (secondary data)
• The review must be related to the variables of interest
• Start with an introduction
• It should define the key concepts of the study
• It should identify the theories upon which the issues of discussion are based
• Synthesize information from different sources to make your point.
• Document all your sources
Example:
 METHODOLOGY

Two basic questions to be addressed are:

1. What additional information do we need to address the Research Objectives?
2. How do we generate this information?
i. Research design
ii. Population and Sampling techniques
iii. Data Collection methods
a. Data sources
b. Instrumentation
c. Data collection
d. Data processing and analysis
• Others?
i. Pre-testing
ii. Scope of the study
iii. Limitations of the study
 THE METHODOLOGY
• Introduction to methodology
• The introduction to methodology describes the
i. research design
ii. methods of data collection
iii. tools of data analysis
iv. whether the research is an assessment/investigation, evaluation,
descriptive or experimental
v. the subsequent stages of the process.
• This chapter requires the use of past tenses since it is activity based.
 RESEARCH DESIGN
• The research design or strategy deals with the nature or type of
research and the procedure for carrying out data collection and
analysis.
• It is the steps and processes used to undertake a research. It is a plan
that describes how, when and where data are to be collected and
analyzed. This should be clearly outlined so that whatever follows will
be in accordance or conformity with the design.
• The research design should also state the type or method of research
- whether it is the quantitative method, qualitative method or the
mixed method
• It should also state the study’s purpose: Whether explanatory,
descriptive or explanatory.
 POPULATION
A population refers to all members of a defined category of people,
events or phenomenon.
• The population should be clearly identified showing the various
categories of available. In the case of an organization, the population
may be stratified or categorized and tabulated showing:
i. Management staff
ii. Senior staff - administrative and technical
iii. Junior staff - administrative and technical
iv. Menial staff/labourers etc.
 SAMPLE
• The best sample for every research study is the entire
population if it is manageable. Using the entire population
avoids the complications associated with sample selection.
Sample could be determined through a formular or a table.
• A census is when the whole population is used a study. For example,
students in a class.
• A sample is a subset of the population selected for a study.
• The more heterogeneous a population is, the larger the sample needs to
be.
• When the population is homogeneous, the sample could be small.
• The larger the sample, the more reliable the findings will be representative.
 WHY USE A SAMPLE

• It saves the researcher time and money

• It enables the researcher to get information that he or she might not
be able to obtain otherwise.
• It enables the researcher to get more detailed information about a
particular subject
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
• Sampling techniques constitute the main methods that are used to select an
appropriate and ideal number of respondents from the population.
• Since the sample may be used for generalization, care should be taken to
select a representative sample from the population.
• Some of the main sampling techniques are:
i. simple random/probability/chance (representative)
ii. Systematic
iii. cluster
iv. stratified
v. purposive
vi. convenience
vii. snowball
 RANDOM SAMPLING METHODS
For a sample to be a unbiased, every member of the population must have an
equal chance of being selected.
• SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING: A random sample is obtained by using methods
such as random numbers.
• SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING: This is a method of obtaining a sample by
numbering each element in the population and then selecting every third or
fifth or tenth etc. number from the population to be included in the sample.
This is done after the first number is selected at random.
• A STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING: This is a sample obtained by dividing the
population into subgroups called strata, according to various homogenous
characteristics and then selecting members form each stratum for the sample.
• CLUSTER SAMPLING: It is a sample obtained by selecting a preexisting or
natural group, called a cluster and using members in the cluster for the sample.
 OTHER SAMPLING METHODS (NON
RANDOM)
• SEQUENCE SAMPLING: This is usually used in quality control in which successive units
taken from production lines are sampled to ensure that the products meet certain
standards set by the manufacturing company.
• CONVENIENCE SAMPLING: (Haphazard or incidental sampling). In this method, study
units are selected accidentally or for convenience for sake at the time of data collection.
• SNOWBAL SAMPLING: This is a method used to choose groups of people who are hard
to locate. Initial contact is made, then the other can be contacted. The snowball gets
bigger as more contact is made to other groups (Get-one-get-all).
• PURPOSIVE SAMPLING: Here, the study units are chosen because they are specially
relevant to the study. For example, individuals are selected because they can provide
information needed to answer the study’s questions.
• QUOTA SAMPLING: In this case, the entire population is first divided into homogenous
strata with respect to the given characteristic. Then, you meet just a specific number of
people from each strata as you come across them rather than selecting them through
random procedure.
 DATA SOURCES
• Data is classified according to source:
• These are primary sources and secondary sources.
 Primary data Primary data are data from original source. That is, first-hand
information collected from the field which might not have been used before. They are
usually collected through the use of questionnaires, interviews, observations, etc.
from sampled respondents. It has the advantage of providing exact information.

Secondary data Secondary data are also known as “second hand” data. They are data
which already exist and might have been used before. They may be from books,
theses, reports, refereed journals, conference proceedings, magazines, newspapers,
bulletins, Auditor's Reports, Committee Reports etc. It has the advantage of being
easily available and may be less expensive but may be incomplete, incorrect or
obsolete.
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS
• Data collection methods enables us to systematically gather information to
answer our research questions conclusively.
• Selection of the method must relate to the research problem, the objective,
research questions and the variables.
TYPES OF DATA COLLECTION METHODS
1. Use of existing documents/materials (secondary data)
2. Observation: Two types
a. Participant observation
b. Non-participant observation
3. Instrument administration
i. Interviewing
ii. Focus group discussion
 INSTRUMENTATION
• Instrumentation is the process by which variables are examined. For
example, the design of questionnaires, interview schedules and guides,
checklists
 QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
• Questionnaire design should be based on
1. What exactly do we want to know based on the objectives and variables we have already identified.
2. Emphasis should be laid on the subject matter of the study instead of demographic characteristics
of respondents. This depends on the topic under study.
3. Who will we ask questions and what techniques would we use.
4. Are our informants mainly literate or illiterate?
5. How large is the sample that will be interviewed?
6. There should be a variety of response items ranging from various dimensions of „Yes‟ and 'No‟;
Strongly agree, Agree, Indifferent/Unsure/Neutral, Disagree, Strongly disagree (Likert Scale) to
other response items suitable for a particular question(s).
7. Where necessary, different sets of questionnaire should be designed for different categories of
employees such as management staff, senior staff and junior staff. The questions should be
categorized under appropriate segments such as: Demography, Education/Qualifications,
Employment history, and the thematic areas from the specific objectives.
8. Avoid words with vague meanings and also emotionally loaded words.
 TYPES OF QUESTIONS
• Open ended questions
• Closed ended questions.
 DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS

STATE HOW DATA COLLECTED WAS HANDLED

• Describe the sample
• Describe how data was processed (reduce, order, or code the data)
Example
Information gathered from the responses to the questionnaires was screened to
remove incomplete or wrongly filled questionnaires. The open-ended questions were
edited and coded. In order to make an objective assessment of the role of
performance appraisal in staff development in University A, the respondents were
categorized into managerial staff and teaching staff. The data collected were processed
with the Predictive Analysis SoftWare (PASW) version 17.0.3 Information obtained was
summarized and presented in tables and charts to show percentages, and frequencies.
 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND
Introduction
DISCUSSION
• Introduction to this chapter may take the form of briefly describing
how the data/information collected have been presented, analyzed and
discussed through some statistical tools and softwares. If primary data
were used, state the response rate. This chapter would require the use
of past tenses.
• Present the information from the questionnaires, interviews or
observations in the form of tables or figures but not in both.
• Tables should be titled on top whiles figures should have their titles
below them.
• State the sources of all tables and figures.
 SUB-HEADINGS FOR RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION

• The thematic areas transferred from the specific objectives, research

questions and the questionnaires should also be the main headings in
Chapter Four under which data/information would be presented,
analyzed and discussed through the use of figures and tables.
• In this chapter, the main subunits should be based on the thematic
areas in the specific objectives and the research questions. The
number of sub-heading will thus depend on the number of objectives
and research questions.
• Link findings of research to reviewed literature.
 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF
FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
• Introduce the chapter with a brief summary of findings or just state
that “This chapter presents the summary of findings, draws some
conclusions and makes some recommendations”.
• Present the summary of finding under the research objective themes.
• Make a conclusion under the heading: Conclusion to bring closure to
the study. It should be based on your main objective. It should be the
answer the study has provided to your main/general objective.
• The sub-heading: Recommendations should be based on your
findings. It should not be a vague sweeping statement.
 ASSIGNMENT
• In consultation with the head of department of your major area,
select a research topic you may want to write on for your final
project.
• Bring the topic to class for discussion on 14 November, 2018.