IMMUNITY

IN
HONEYBEES
» Honeybees are social insects living in colonies
comprised of large number of individuals.
- Represent a significant cost from the perspective of
immunity.
» Large colonies, warm temperature and interacting
individuals = Favorable breeding grounds for
pathogens.
» Honeybees are susceptible to a whole range of
pathogens and diseases. These pathogens can be
categorized into:
i. Endoparasites ie. Bacteria, Viruses etc.
ii. Ectoparasites ie. Varroa mites
iii. Predators ie. Aethina tumida
 Pathogen Transmission
» Transmission of Pathogens can either be Horizontal
(ie. Between individuals within the same generation)
or Vertical (Between individuals of different
generations)
» The level of transmission can also be Intra- or Inter-
colony.
» Social insects exhibit two levels of Immunity to
protect themselves from infections:
i. Social Immunity
ii. Individual Immunity
Fact: Honeybees (individually) possess
only one third (1/3) as many genes
involved in insect immunity.

Brainstorm:
1. What is the reason behind honeybees’
success despite their genetic limitation?
2. What are the mechanisms of social
Immunity?
The following are barriers that a pathogen needs to
overcome to be stablished in a bee colony:
i. Specialized worker bees control the nest entrance and
may prevent entry of infected foragers and/or drifters.
ii. Hygienic behavior among honey bees allow quick
recognition and removal of infected individuals .
iii. Construction of nests from antimicrobial materials.
iv. Raising offspring in sterile nurseries.
v. Heightened risk taking by infected individuals.
vi. Increased genetic variation among individuals within
colonies and transfer of immune traits.
vii. Division of labor – specialized groups reduce
interactions.
 Individual Immunity
» Individual immunity of honeybees consist of Boundary
defense and Haemocoelic defense.
» Outer body covering is also an effective host defense
against parasites and pathogens - Boundary defense.
» This is predominantly a toughened cuticle forming a
protective integument over bee’s external surface.
» Once the physical barrier of the cuticle is breached, the
epidermis is the next line of defense.
» The epithelium is ineffective as a physical barrier but
express a number of key immune effector systems.
» Physical properties of the cuticle combined with its
ability to biochemically respond to pathogens makes in
extremely effective barrier to infection.
» The digestive system offers most invasion
opportunities for pathogens.
» The fore- and hindgut are physically protected – being
lined with a thin layer of cuticle.
» The midgut is lined with unprotected epithelial
surface.
» However, the midgut epithelium is an immunologically
active tissue that produce host defense peptides as
well as NO and PO.
» The Malpighian tubules are also unprotected by the
cuticle but are immunologically active, same as the
midgut.
» Once an invader has breached the barrier defenses, the
Haemocoelic defense takes over.
» Involves rapid and effective response that localizes and
neutralizes the reproductive capacity/growth of the
pathogen.
» Honeybees rely solely on the Innate Immune system.
» Injury can present major physiological problems.
» To prevent further blood loss and close the invasion
route, wounds have to be plugged – Blood clotting.
» In addition, Clotting immobilize, localize and begin
neutralizing pathogens that have entered via the wound.
» Clotting reaction is triggered by recognition of the
Pathogen Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs) ie.
Lipopolysaccharide and peptidoglycans
» Initial physical changes that occur during clotting
include:
- increased viscosity of hemolymph and
- inclusion of insoluble glycosylated sticky fibres
containing clotting proteins particularly hemolectin.
» The sticky fibres adhere to each other, form a sticky net
and begin to seal the wound.
» It also trap the pathogens and hemocytes, some of
which are responsible for secreting the fibres.
» Damaged epithelial cells near the wound release
hemokinin that attracts hemocytes to the vicinity of the
wound.
» Hemokinin is a compound that aids cell aggregation.
» Phenoloxidase (PO) is also activated during later stages
of wound closure – after establishment of a soft clot.
» The enzyme cascade helps to kill invaders and melanize
material that constitute the clot and reestablish an
impermeable physical barrier.
A model for clot formation at an injury site. Upon injury,
plasmatocytes immediately release Hemolectin and other
proteins that form clot fibers. Cross-linkage of these fibers
occurs with the help of proteins such as Fondue,
transglutaminase, and PO.