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Mechanics of Materials, Eighth Edition

Chapter 3

Torsion

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 Contents
Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts
Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses
Axial Shear Components
Shaft Deformations
Shearing Strain
Stresses in Elastic Range
Normal Stresses
Torsional Failure Modes
Sample Problem 3.1
Angle of Twist in Elastic Range
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Statically Indeterminate Shafts
Sample Problem 3.4
Design of Transmission Shafts
Stress Concentrations
Plastic Deformations
Elastoplastic Materials
Residual Stresses
Concept Application 3.8/3.9
Torsion of Noncircular Members
Thin-Walled Hollow Shafts
Concept Application 3.10
2
 Torsional Loads on Circular
Shafts
• Stresses and strains in members of
circular cross-section are subjected to
twisting couples or torques.
• Turbine exerts torque T on the shaft.
• Shaft transmits the torque to the
generator.
• Generator creates an equal and opposite
torque T ' .

Figure 3.2 (a) A generator provides power at a

constant revolution per minute to a turbine
through shaft AB. (b) Free body diagram of shaft
AB along with the driving and reaction torques on
the generator and turbine, respectively.

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 Net Torque Due to Internal
Stresses
• Net of the internal shearing stresses is an
internal torque, equal and opposite to the
applied torque,

Figure 3.3 Shaft subject to torques and a section T    dF     dA

plane at C.

• Although the net torque due to the shearing

stresses is known, the distribution of the
stresses is not.
• Distribution of shearing stresses is
statically indeterminate – must consider
shaft deformations.
• Unlike the normal stress due to axial loads,
Figure 3.4 (a) Free body diagram of section BC with
torque at C represented by the representable
the distribution of shearing stresses due to
contributions of small elements of area carrying forces torsional loads cannot be assumed uniform.
dF a radius r from the section center. (b) Free-body
diagram of section BC having all the small area
elements summed resulting in torque T.
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 Axial Shear Components
• Torque applied to shaft produces
shearing stresses on the faces
perpendicular to the axis.
• Conditions of equilibrium require the
existence of equal stresses on the faces
Figure 3.5 Small element in shaft showing
how shear stress components act. of the two planes containing the axis of
the shaft.
• The existence of the axial shear
components is demonstrated by
considering a shaft made up of slats
pinned at both ends to disks.
• The slats slide with respect to each other
when equal and opposite torques are
Figure 3.6 Model of shearing in shaft (a)
undeformed; (b) loaded and deformed.
applied to the ends of the shaft.

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 Shaft Deformations
Figure 3.7 Shaft with fixed support and line
AB drawn showing deformation under
torsion loading: (a) unloaded; (b) loaded.
Figure 3.8 Comparison of deformations in
circular (a) and square (b) shafts.
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• From observation, the angle of twist of
the shaft is proportional to the applied
torque and to the shaft length:
 T
L
• When subjected to torsion, every
cross-section of a circular shaft
remains plane and undistorted.
• Cross-sections for hollow and solid
circular shafts remain plain and
undistorted because a circular shaft is
axisymmetric.
• Cross-sections of noncircular (non-
axisymmetric) shafts are distorted
when subjected to torsion.
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6
 Shearing Strain
• Consider an interior section of the shaft.
As a torsional load is applied, an element
on the interior cylinder deforms into a
rhombus.
• Since the ends of the element remain
planar, the shear strain is equal to angle
of twist.
• It follows that

L   or  
L

• Shear strain is proportional to twist and radius

Figure 3.13 Shearing Strain Kinematic definitions
for torsion deformation. (a) The angle of twist ᶲ (b)
c 
Undeformed portion of shaft of radius ρ with (c)  max  and    max
Deformed portion of the shaft having same angle
of twist, ᶲ and strain, angles of twist per unit
L c
length, γ.
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 Stresses in Elastic Range
• Multiplying the previous equation by the
shear modulus, 
G  G max
c
From Hooke’s Law,   G , so

   max
c
The shearing stress varies linearly with
the distance ρ from the axis of the shaft.
• Recall that the sum of the moments of
the elementary forces exerted on any
cross section of the shaft must be equal
to the magnitude T of the torque:
 
T    dA  max   2 dA  max J
c c
Figure 3.14 Distribution of shearing stresses in a
• The results are known as the elastic
torqued shaft; (a) Solid shaft, (b) hollow shaft. torsion formulas, Tc T
 max  and  
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 Normal Stresses
• Elements with faces parallel and perpendicular to
the shaft axis are subjected to shear stresses only.
Normal stresses, shearing stresses, or a
combination of both may be found for other
Figure 3.17 Circular shaft with stress orientations.
elements at different orientations.
• Consider an element at 45o to the shaft axis,

F  2 max A0 cos 45   max A0 2

F  max A0 2
 45o     max
A A0 2
Figure 3.18 Forces on faces at 45° to shaft
axis.
• Element a is in pure shear.
• Element c is subjected to a tensile stress on
two faces and compressive stress on the other
two.
• Note that all stresses for elements a and c have
Figure 3.19 Shaft elements with only shear
the same magnitude.
stresses or normal stresses. Access the text alternative for slide images.

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 Torsional Failure Modes

Photo 3.2 Shear failure of shaft subject to torque.

• Ductile materials generally fail in shear. Brittle materials are weaker in

tension than shear.
• When subjected to torsion, a ductile specimen breaks along a plane of
maximum shear, i.e., a plane perpendicular to the shaft axis.
• When subjected to torsion, a brittle specimen breaks along planes
perpendicular to the direction in which tension is a maximum, i.e., along
surfaces at 45° to the shaft axis.

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 Sample Problem 3.1 1

SOLUTION:
• Cut sections through shafts
AB and BC and perform
static equilibrium analyses
to find torque loadings.
• Apply elastic torsion
formulas to find minimum
and maximum stress on
shaft BC.
Shaft BC is hollow with inner and outer diameters
of 90 mm and 120 mm, respectively. Shafts AB • Given allowable shearing
and CD are solid and of diameter d. For the stress and applied torque,
loading shown, determine (a) the minimum and invert the elastic torsion
maximum shearing stress in shaft BC, (b) the formula to find the required
required diameter d of shafts AB and CD if the diameter.
allowable shearing stress in these shafts is 65 M Pa.

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 Sample Problem 3.1 2

SOLUTION:
• Cut sections through shafts AB and BC and perform static equilibrium
analysis to find torque loadings.

Figure 1 Free-body diagram for section between A

Figure 2 Free-body diagram for section between B
and B.
and C.

 M x  0  6 kN  m   TAB
 M x  0  6 kN  m   14 kN  m   TBC
TAB  6 kN  m  TCD
TBC  20 kN  m
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 Sample Problem 3.1 3

• Apply elastic torsion formulas to find • Given allowable shearing stress and
minimum and maximum stress on shaft applied torque, invert the elastic
BC. torsion formula to find the required
diameter.

Figure 3 Shearing stress distribution on cross section.

Figure 4 Free-body diagram of shaft portion AB.

J 
 4
2

c2  c14 

2
 
0.0604  0.0454  Tc Tc 6 kN  m
 max   65MPa 
 13.92  10 6 m 4 J  c4  c3
2 2
TBC c2 20 kN  m 0.060 m  c  38.9  103 m
 max   2  
J 13.92  10 6 m 4
 86.2 MPa d  2c  77.8 mm
 min c1  min 45 mm
 
 max c2 86.2 MPa 60 mm  max  86.2 MPa
 min  64.7 MPa  min  64.7 MPa
© McGraw-Hill Education 13
 Angle of Twist in Elastic Range 1

• Recall that the angle of twist and maximum

shearing strain are related,
c
 max 
L
• In the elastic range, the shearing strain and
shearing stress are related by Hooke’s Law,
 max Tc
Figure 3.20 Torque applied to fixed end
 max  
shaft resulting angle of twist ᶲ.
G JG
• Equating the expressions for shearing strain and
solving for the angle of twist,
TL

JG
• If the torsional loading or shaft cross-section
changes along the length, the angle of rotation is
found as the sum of segment rotations,
Figure 3.21 Shaft with multiple cross-section Ti Li
dimensions and multiple loads.  
i J i Gi
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 Statically Indeterminate Shafts
• Given the shaft dimensions and the applied
torque, we would like to find the torque
reactions at A and B.
• From a free-body analysis of the shaft,
TA  TB  90 lb  ft

which is not sufficient to find the end torques. The problem is

statically indeterminate.
• Divide the shaft into two components which must have
compatible deformations,
TA L1 TB L2 LJ
  1  2   0 TB  1 2 TA
J1G J 2G L2 J1

• Substitute into the original equilibrium equation,

LJ
Figure 3.25 (a) Shaft with central applied torque TA  1 2 TA  90 lb  ft
and fixed ends. (b) free-body diagram of shaft AB. L2 J1
(c) Free-body diagrams for solid and hollow
segments.
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 Sample Problem 3.4 1

SOLUTION:
• Apply a static equilibrium analysis
on the two shafts to find a
relationship between TCD and T0.

• Apply a kinematic analysis to

relate the angular rotations of the
gears.

Two solid steel shafts are connected • Find the maximum allowable
by gears. Knowing that for each shaft torque on each shaft – choose the
G  11.2  106 psi and that the smallest.
shearing stress is allowable
8 ksi, determine (a)
• Find the corresponding angle of
the largest torque T0 that may be
twist for each shaft and the net
applied to the end of shaft AB, (b) the
angular rotation of end A.
corresponding angle through which
end A of shaft AB rotates.
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 Sample Problem 3.4 2

SOLUTION:
• Apply a static equilibrium analysis • Apply a kinematic analysis to
on the two shafts to find a relate the angular rotations of the
relationship between TCD and T0 . gears.

Figure 1 Free-body diagrams of gears B and C. Figure 2 Angles of twist for gears B and C.

 M B  0  F 0.875in.  T0 rB B  rCC

 M C  0  F 2.45 in.  TCD B 

rC
C 
2.45 in.
C
rB 0.875in.
TCD  2.8 T0
 B  2.8C
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 Sample Problem 3.4 3

• Find the T0 for the maximum • Find the corresponding angle of

allowable torque on each twist for each shaft and the net
shaft – choose the smallest. angular rotation of end A.

Figure 3 Free-body Figure 4 Free-body Figure 5 Angle of twist results.

diagram of shaft AB. diagram of shaft CD.

A/ B 
TAB L

561lb  in.24 in.
 max 
TAB c
8000 psi 
T0  0.375in.
2

J ABG  0.375 in.4 11 .2  106 psi 
0.375in.
4
J AB 
2  0.387 rad  2.22o
T0  663lb  in. T L 2.8 561lb  in.24 in.
C / D  CD 
 max 
TCD c
8000 psi 
2.8 T0  0.5in.
2

J CDG  0.5 in.4 11 .2  106 psi 
0.5in.
4
J CD 
2  0.514 rad  2.95o
T0  561lb  in. 
 B  2.8C  2.8 2.95o  8.26o 
o o  A  10.48o
 A   B   A / B  8.26  2.22
© McGraw-Hill Education 18
 Design of Transmission Shafts
Principal transmission shaft Determine torque applied to shaft at
performance specifications are specified power and speed,
• Power. P  T  2fT
• Speed of rotation. T
P

P
 2f
Designer must select shaft material Find shaft cross-section which will
and dimensions of the cross-section not exceed the maximum allowable
to meet performance specifications shearing stress,
without exceeding allowable
shearing stress. Tc
 max 
J
J  3 T
 c  solid shafts
c 2  max
J

 4 4
c2 2c2

c2  c1  T
 max
hollow shafts

© McGraw-Hill Education 19
 Stress Concentrations
Figure 3.26
Coupling of shafts
• The derivation of the torsion formula,
using (a) bolted Tc
flange, (b) slot for  max 
keyway. J
assumed a circular shaft with
uniform cross-section loaded through
rigid end plates.
The use of flange couplings, gears,
and pulleys attached to shafts by
keys in keyways, and cross-section
discontinuities can cause stress
concentrations.
Experimental or numerically
determined concentration factors are
applied as,
Tc
 max  K
J
Figure 3.28 Plot of stress concentration
factors for fillets in circular shafts. Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw-Hill Education 20
 Plastic Deformations
Figure 3.29 Distribution of shearing
strain for torsion of a circular shaft.
Figure 3.30 Nonlinear, shear stress-strain
diagram.
Figure 3.31 Shearing strain distribution for
shaft with nonlinear stress-strain response.
© McGraw-Hill Education
• With the assumption of a linearly elastic
material,
Tc
 max 
J
• If the yield strength is exceeded or the material
involved is a brittle material with a nonlinear
shearing-stress-strain curve, these relationships
cease to be valid.
• Shearing strain varies linearly regardless of
material properties. Application of shearing-stress-
strain curve allows determination of stress
distribution.
• The integral of the moments from the internal
stress distribution is equal to the torque on the
shaft at the section,
c c
T    2 d   2   2 d
0 0
21
 Elastoplastic Materials
• At the maximum elastic torque,
J L Y
TY   Y  12 c3 Y Y 
c c
• As the torque is increased, a plastic region

(   Y ) develops around an elastic core (   Y )
Y
L Y
Y 

Y3  4  1 Y3 
2 c 3 1  1

T Y  T 1 4 3
3  3 Y
3
 c 4
 c 
 1 Y3 
T  3 TY 1  4 3 
4
  

Figure 3.34 Stress-strain distribution for
elastic-perfectly plastic shaft at different
stages of loading: (a) elastic, (b) impending
• As Y  0, the torque approaches a limiting value,
yield, (c) partially yielded, and (d) fully
yielded. TP  43 TY  plastic torque

• Valid only for a solid circular shaft made of

an elastoplastic material.
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© McGraw-Hill Education 22
 Residual Stresses
• Plastic region develops in a shaft when subjected to a
large enough torque.
• When the torque is removed, the reduction of stress
and strain at each point takes place along a straight
line to a generally non-zero residual stress.
• On a T-ᶲ curve, the shaft unloads along a straight line
Figure 3.37 Shear stress-strain response for loading to an angle greater than zero.
past yield reversing until compressive yield occurs.

• Residual stresses found from principle of

superposition:
Tc
m     dA  0
J
Figure 3.39 Superposition of
elastic-plastic state (a) plus
linear elastic unloading (b)
equals residual (c) sharing
stress distributions.

Figure 3.38 Torque-angle of twist response for

loading past yield, followed by unloading.
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© McGraw-Hill Education 23
 Concept Application 3.8/3.9
Figure 3.36 Loaded circular shaft.
A solid circular shaft is
subjected to a torque T =
4.6kN·m at each end. Assuming
that the shaft is made of an
elastoplastic material with and τY
= 150 MPa and G = 77 GPa
determine (a) the radius of the
elastic core, (b) the angle of
twist of the shaft. When the
torque is removed, determine (c)
the permanent twist, (d) the
© McGraw-Hill Education
1
SOLUTION:
• Solve Equation (3.29) for Y /c and
the elastic core radius. evaluate
• Solve Equation (3.15) for the angle of
twist.
• Evaluate Equation (3.16) for the angle
which the shaft untwists when the torque is
removed. The permanent twist is the
difference between the angles of twist and
untwist.
• Find the residual stress distribution by a
superposition of the stress due to twisting
and untwisting the shaft.
24
 Concept Application 3.8/3.9 2

SOLUTION:
• Solve Equation (3.29) for Y /c • Solve Equation (3.15) for the angle of
and evaluate the elastic core twist:
radius:
 1 Y3 
1
3  Y Y
Y  T    
T  3 TY 1  4 3  
4   4  3  Y c Y c
 c  c  TY 

4
J  12 c  12  25  10 m  3
 Y 
TY L

 
3.68  103 N  m 1.2 m 
JG  
614  10-9 m 4 77  10 Pa 
 614  109 m 4 Y  93.4  103 rad
TY c  J 93.4  103 rad
Y   TY  Y   148.3  103 rad  8.50o
J c
0.630
TY 

150  106 Pa 614 109 m 4 
25 10 m 3   8.50o
 3.68 kN  m
1
Y  4.6  3
 4 3   0.630 Y  15.8 mm
c  3.68 
© McGraw-Hill Education 25
 Concept Application 3.8/3.9 3

• Evaluate Equation (3.15) for the • Find the residual stress distribution
angle to which the shaft by a superposition of the stress due to
untwists when the torque is twisting and untwisting the shaft:
removed. The permanent twist Tc  4.6  10 N  m  25  10 m 
3 3

is the difference between the 

 max  
J 614  109 m 4
angles of twist and untwist:  187.3MPa
TL
 
JG


 4.6  10 N  m  1.2 m 
3

6.14 10 m 77 10 Pa 

9 4 9

 116.8  10 3 rad  6.69

φp     
 8.50  6.69
 1.81o
 p  1.81o Figure 3.40 Superposition of stress distributions to obtain
residual stresses.

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© McGraw-Hill Education 26
 Torsion of Noncircular Members 1

• Previous torsion formulas are valid for

axisymmetric or circular shafts.
• Planar cross-sections of noncircular
Figure 3.41 Twisting of shaft with square cross section.
shafts do not remain planar and stress
and strain distribution do not vary
linearly.
• For uniform rectangular cross-sections,
T TL
 max  
Figure 3.44 Shaft with rectangular cross section, showing the c1ab2 c2 ab3G
location of maximum shearing stress.

• At large values of a / b, the maximum

shear stress and angle of twist for
other open sections are the same as a
rectangular bar.

© McGraw-Hill Education 27
 Torsion of Noncircular Members 2

Table 3.1 Coefficients for Rectangular Bars in Torsion

a/b c1 c2
1.0 0.208 0.1406
1.2 0.219 0.1661
1.5 0.231 0.1958
2.0 0.246 0.229
2.5 0.258 0.249
3.0 0.267 0.263
4.0 0.282 0.281
5.0 0.291 0.291
10.0 0.312 0.312
∞ 0.333 0.333

© McGraw-Hill Education 28
 Thin-Walled Hollow Shafts
• Summing forces in the x-direction on AB,

 Fx  0   A t Ax    B t B x 
 At A  Bt B   t  q  shear flow

shear stress varies inversely with thickness.

Figure 3.47 Thin-walled Figure 3.48 Segment
hollow shaft subject to of thin-walled hollow
torsional loading. shaft. • Compute the shaft torque from the integral
of the moments due to shear stress:

dM 0  p dF  p t ds   q  pds   2q da
T   dM 0   2q da  2qAa
T

2ta
Figure 3.51 Shear Figure 3.53 Area
flow in the member for shear flow. • Angle of twist (from Chapter 11):
wall.
TL ds
4a 2G  t


© McGraw-Hill Education 29
 Concept Application 3.10 1

Structural aluminum tubing with a

rectangular cross-section has a torque
loading of 24 kip∙in. Determine the
shearing stress in each of the four walls
with (a) uniform wall thickness of 0.160 in.
and wall thicknesses of (b) 0.120 in. on AB
and CD and 0.200 in. on CD and BD.

SOLUTION:

• Determine the shear flow through the

tubing walls.

• Find the corresponding shearing stress

with each wall thickness.
Figure 3.54 Square thin-walled aluminum tubing
having: (a) uniform thickness, (b) non-uniform
thickness.

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© McGraw-Hill Education 30
 Concept Application 3.10 2

SOLUTION: • Find the corresponding shearing stress

• Determine the shear flow
through the tubing walls.
with each wall thickness.
With a uniform wall thickness,
T 24kip  in.
  2
 8.35ksi
2tA 2(0.160 in.)(8.986 in. )
  8.35 ksi

With a variable wall thickness

1.335 kip in.
 AB   AC 
0.120in.

 AB   BC  11.13ksi

A  3.84in. 2.34in.  8.986in.2  BD   CD 

1.335 kip in.
0.200in.
 BC   CD  6.68 ksi
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