Chapter 3

Integral Relations for a Control Volume

1
 Classifications of fluid flows
Based on the characteristics of flow; the fluid flows can be characterized as
follows

Laminar versus Turbulent Flow

Internal versus External Flow

 Compressible versus Incompressible Flow

Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow

 Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow

 Steady versus Unsteady Flow

 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows

2
 Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
 Some flows are smooth and orderly while others are rather
chaotic.
 The highly ordered fluid motion characterized by smooth
layers of fluid is called laminar.
 The flow of high-viscosity fluids such as oils at low
velocities is typically laminar.
 The highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at
high velocities and is characterized by velocity fluctuations
is called turbulent. The flow of low-viscosity fluids such as
air at high velocities is typically turbulent. Fig. Laminar, transitional,
 Eg.the flow through pumps and turbines, and and turbulent flows over a
flat plate.
the flow around aircraft-wing tips
Reynolds number, Re, as the key
 A flow that alternates between being laminar and parameter for the determination
turbulent is called transitional of the flow regime in pipes
3
 Internal versus External Flow
• A fluid flow is classified as being internal or external,
depending on whether the fluid flows in a confined
space or over a surface.
 The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a
plate, a wire, or a pipe is external flow.
 airflow over a ball or over an exposed pipe during a
windy day is external flow
Fig. External flow over a
 The flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow if the fluid is
tennis ball, and the turbulent
completely bounded by solid surfaces.
wake region behind.
 Water flow in a pipe, for example, is internal flow.

4
 Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
A flow is classified as being compressible or incompressible, depending on the
level of variation of density during flow.
Incompressibility is an approximation, in which the flow is said to be
incompressible if the density remains nearly constant throughout.
Therefore, the volume of every portion of fluid remains unchanged over the
course of its motion when the flow is approximated as incompressible.
Examples:
Liquids are usually referred to as incompressible substances.
Gases, on the other hand, are highly compressible.

5
 Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
When two fluid layers move relative to each other, a friction force develops
between them and the slower layer tries to slow down the faster layer.
This internal resistance to flow is quantified by the fluid property viscosity, which is
a measure of internal stickiness of the fluid.
 There is no fluid with zero viscosity, and thus all fluid flows involve viscous
effects to some degree.
 Flows in which the frictional effects are significant are called viscous flows.
 A flow is assumed to be inviscid when the viscosity is very low or almost
negligible.

6
 Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow
A fluid flow is said to be natural or forced, depending on how the fluid motion
is initiated.
 In forced flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by external
means such as a pump or a fan.
 In natural flows, fluid motion is due to natural means such as the buoyancy
effect, which manifests itself as the rise of warmer (and thus lighter) fluid and
the fall of cooler (and thus denser) fluid.

7
 Steady versus Unsteady Flow

The terms steady and uniform are used frequently in engineering, and thus it is important to have
a clear understanding of their meanings.
 The term steady implies no change of properties, velocity, temperature, etc., at a point with
time. The opposite of steady is unsteady.
 Eg. For steady flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at constant velocity

The terms unsteady and transient are often used interchangeably, but these terms are not
synonyms.
• In fluid mechanics, unsteady is the most general term that applies to any flow that is not steady.
• Eg. flow through a pipe of variable diameter under variable pressure due to an
increasing/decreasing water level of the reservoir

8
 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
A flow field is best characterized by its velocity distribution, and thus a flow is
said to be one-, two-, or three-dimensional if the flow velocity varies in one, two,
or three primary dimensions, respectively.
A typical fluid flow involves a three-dimensional geometry, and the velocity may
vary in all three dimensions, rendering the flow three-dimensional [ in
rectangular or in cylindrical coordinates].

9

A control volume (CV) with
real and imaginary boundaries
Cont…
a system is a collection of matter of fixed identity (always the
same atoms or fluid particles), which may move, flow, and
interact with its surroundings.
 A control volume, on the other hand, is a volume in space (a
geometric entity, independent of mass) through which fluid
may flow.
A system is a specific, identifiable quantity of matter.

(b) A control volume (CV) with fixed and moving

boundaries as well as real and imaginary boundaries 10
 System and Control Volume
 A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for
study.
Surrounding: everything external to the system
Boundary: separates the system to the boundary and it might be fixed or
System, surroundings,
movable.
and boundary
 Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on
whether a fixed mass or a volume in space is chosen for study.
 A closed system(also known as a control mass or simply a system
when the context makes it clear) consists of a fixed amount of mass,
and no mass can cross its boundary. But energy, in the form of heat or
work, can cross the boundary, and the volume of a closed system does
not have to be fixed
A closed system with a moving
boundary. 11
 Cont…
A system of fixed mass is called a closed system, and
A system that involves mass transfer across its boundaries is
called an open system or control volume.

 An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is

A control volume (CV) with a selected region in space. It usually encloses a device that
real and imaginary boundaries involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or
nozzle.
 Flow through these devices is best studied by selecting the
region within the device as the control volume.
 Both mass and energy can cross the boundary (the control
surface) of a control volume.

(b) A control volume (CV) with fixed and moving

boundaries as well as real and imaginary boundaries 12
Open system - control
volume, involves mass
flow in and out of a
system
Pump, turbine, air
conditioner, car radiator,
water heater, garden hose

Open Systems - Control

Volume

13
 Cont…
For analyzing and determining gross flow effects, such as the force or torque on
a body or the total energy exchange, in fluid motion take one of the two paths:
1. Seeking to describe the detailed flow pattern at every point (x, y, z) in the
field, which is differential approach.
2. Working with a finite region, making a balance of flow-in versus flow-out,
which is control volume method.
First develop the concept of the control volume, in nearly the same manner as
one does in a thermodynamics course, and then find the rate of change of an
arbitrary gross fluid property, a result called the Reynolds transport theorem.
Then apply this theorem, in sequence, to mass, linear momentum, angular
momentum, and energy, thus deriving the four basic control volume relations of
fluid mechanics.
14
 Cont…
Langrangian Method: In this method, the observer concentrates on the movement
of a single particle. The path taken by the particle and the changes in its velocity
and acceleration are studied.
The property components (obtained by taking derivatives with respect to time)
are given by: eg, velocity and acc.
At any point, the resultant shall be the resultant of three components of the
respective quantity at that point.
Eulerian Method: The observer concentrates on a point in the fluid system.
Velocity, acceleration and other characteristics of the fluid at that particular point
are studied.
The field variables are as a functions of space and time.

15
 Reynolds Transport Theorem (RTT)

The relationship between the time rates of change of an extensive property for a system (mass,
energy, momentum & etc. ) and for a control volume is expressed by the Reynolds transport
theorem (RTT).

Therefore what we need is to relate the time derivative of a system property to the rate of
change of that property within a certain region.

B represents the extensive property of the system (i.e. Velocity,

acceleration, mass, temperature, and momentum) when analyzing a
system, Bsys will
b represent the amount of that parameter per unit mass which is
independent of mass.
B=mb and b=B/m
16
 CONT…
a control volume is a mathematical abstraction employed in the process of creating
mathematical models of physical processes.

The desired conversion formula differs slightly according to whether the control volume is
fixed, moving, or deformable.

17
CONT…
Consider flow from left to right through a diverging (expanding)
portion of a flow field as sketched in Fig below.

A moving system (hatched region) and a fixed
control volume (shaded region) in a diverging
portion of a flow field at times t and t+t. The upper
and lower bounds are streamlines of the flow.
The fluid particles that coincided
with section 2 of the control surface at time t have
moved a distance to the right, where is the velocity
of the fluid as it passes section 2.

18
 CONT…

(the system and CV coincide at time t

Subtracting the first equation from the second one and dividing by gives

Taking the limit as dt → 0, and using the definition of derivative, we get

the time rate of change of the property B of the system is equal to the time rate of change of B of the control
volume plus the net flux of B out of the control volume by mass crossing the control surface.

Since = = =
===

9 19
 CONT…
 where and are the cross-sectional areas at locations 1 and 2. Equation states that the time
rate of change of the property B of the system is equal to the time rate of change of B of the
control volume plus the net flux of B out of the control volume by mass crossing the control
surface. This is the desired relation since it relates the change of a property of a system to
the change of that property for a control volume.

The influx and outflux of the property B in this case are easy to determine since there is
only one inlet and one outlet, and the velocities are approximately normal to the surfaces at
sections (1) and (2).

20
 CONT…
 In general, we may have several inlet and outlet ports, and the velocity may not be normal to
the control surface at the point of entry. Also, the velocity may not be uniform. To generalize
the process, we consider a differential surface area dA on the control surface and denote its
unit outer normal by .

The properties within the control volume may vary with position, in general. In such a case, the
total amount of property B within the control volume must be determined by integration:

21
 CONT…

 The properties within the control volume may vary with position, in general. In such a case, the total
amount of property B within the control volume must be determined by integration:

Since the control volume is not moving or deforming with time, the time derivative on the right-
hand side can be moved inside the integral, since the domain of integration does not change with
time.
• the time derivative in that case must be expressed as a partial derivative (∂/∂t) since density
and the quantity b may depend not only on time,

22
 Cont…
Fixed Control Volume
Let B be any extensive property of the fluid (energy, momentum, enthalpy, etc.) and let β = dB/dm be
the intensive value. The total amount of B in the control volume is thus:

we see that three sources of changes in B relating to the control volume:

The notations CV and CS refer to the control volume and control surface, respectively and is
elemental volume.
23
 Cont…

Inflow across a typical portion of the control surface.

Outflow across a typical portion of the control surface.

24
 Cont…
Note, that the system has moved a bit. In the limit as dt→0, the instantaneous change of B in
the system is the sum of the change within, plus the outflow, minus the inflow:

This is the Reynolds transport theorem for an arbitrary fixed control volume.
By letting the property B be mass, momentum, angular momentum, or energy, we can rewrite
all the basic laws in control volume form.
Two alternate forms are possible for the flow terms.

or
The compact form of the Reynolds transport theorem is:
25
 Cont…
In many situations, the flow crosses the boundaries of the control surface only at simplified
inlets and exits that are approximately one-dimensional; that is, flow properties are nearly
uniform over the cross section.
For a fixed control volume, the surface integral reduces to a sum of positive (outlet) and
negative (inlet) product terms for each cross section:

13 26
 Physical laws of fluid mechanics
There are five basic Laws in the analysis of fluid mechanics problems.
i. Continuity equation (conservation of mass): is based on the principle of conservation of mass.
It stated as “If no fluid is added or removed from the pipe in any length then the mass passing
across different sections shall be same.”

Time rate of change of the system mass =0 or the amount of Mass in a system is the
constant. Mathematically,
where the system mass, is more
generally expressed as
and the integration is over
the volume of the system.
27
 Cont…

The Reynolds transport theorem establishes a relation between system rates of change and
control volume surface and volume integrals. But system derivatives are related to the basic
laws of mechanics,
For conservation of mass, B = m and b = dm/dm = 1. Equation and RTT becomes
For a fixed control volume,

28
 Cont…
If the control volume has a number of only one-dimensional inlets and outlets:

If the flow within the control volume is steady; then ∂ρ/∂t = 0, and mass
conservation for fixed control volume reduces to:

This states that in steady flow the mass flows entering and leaving the control
volume must balance exactly, if the inlets and outlets are one-dimensional is given
as:

29
 Cont…
Consider the fixed control volume for nearly incompressible flow, the term ∂ρ/∂t is small,
so that neglected, and mass conservation for fixed control volume reduces to:

Conservation of
or mass principle
for a two-inlet–one-
outlet
If the inlets and outlets are one-dimensional: steady-flow system.

or

where is called the volume flow passing through the given cross section.

30
 Cont…
If the cross section is not one-dimensional:

This equation allows us to define an average velocity Vav that, when multiplied by the section
area, gives the correct volume flow:

This could be called the volume-average velocity.

If the density varies across the section, an average density can define in the same manner:

31
 Moving, Nondeforming Control Volume
when a moving control volume is used, the fluid velocity relative to the moving control volume
(relative velocity) is an important flow field variable.
The relative velocity, W, is the fluid velocity seen by an observer moving with the control
volume.
The control volume velocity , is the velocity of the control volume as seen from a fixed
coordinate system.
The absolute velocity, V, is the fluid velocity seen by a stationary observer in a fixed coordinate
system. These velocities are related to each other by the vector equation

For a system and a moving, nondeforming control volume that are

coincident at an instant of time, the Reynolds transport theorem
for a moving control volume leads to

32
 Moving, Nondeforming Control Volume
For conservation of mass (the continuity equation) for a moving, nondeforming control volume,

33
Examples

19 34
cont...

35
Exercise

36
Cont…
The tank in Fig. below is being filled with water by two one-dimensional inlets. Air is trapped at
the top of the tank. The water height is h. (a) Find an expression for the change in water height
dh/dt. (b) Compute dh/dt if =1in, =3 in, =3 ft/s, =2 ft/s, and =2 , assuming water at 20°C.

37
Solution
A suggested control volume encircles the tank and cuts through the two inlets. The flow
within is unsteady, and conservation of mass with no outlets and two inlets:

Now if is the tank cross-sectional area, the unsteady term can be evaluated as follows:

The term vanishes because it is the rate of change of air mass and is zero because the air is
trapped at the top.
Since

38
Cont…

What will happen if the top of the tank is open.

39
 ii. Linear Momentum Equation
Newton’s second law for a system of mass m subjected to net force Σ is expressed as:

where m is the linear momentum of the system.

Noting that both the density and velocity may change from point to point within the
system, Newton’s second law can be expressed more generally as:

where d is the mass of a differential volume element and ρ is its momentum.

Let the Reynolds transport theorem can be expressed for linear momentum as:

40
 Cont…
Therefore application of the Reynolds transport theorem gives the linear momentum equation
that applies to fixed, moving, or deforming control volumes is:

which is stated in words as:

The surface integral is called the momentum flow and denote momentum by M , then:

41
 Forces acting on a control volume
The forces acting on a control volume consist of body forces that act throughout the entire body
of the control volume (such as gravity, electric, and magnetic forces) and surface forces that act
on the control surface (such as pressure and viscous forces and reaction forces at points of
contact).
Only external forces are considered in the analysis. Internal forces (such as the pressure force
between a fluid and the inner surfaces of the flow section) are not considered in a control
volume analysis unless they are exposed by passing the control surface through that area.

Special Cases
Most momentum problems considered in your text are steady. During steady flow, the amount of
momentum within the control volume remains constant, and thus the time rate of change of
linear momentum of the contents of the control volume gives;

42
 Cont…

Thus for one dimensional inlets and outlets the control volume reduces to:

During steady flow, the amount of momentum within the control volume remains constant,
and thus the time rate of change of linear momentum of the contents of the control
volume is zero. Thus,

43
 Example
Water flows steadily through the 90° reducing elbow shown in the diagram. At the inlet to
the elbow, the absolute pressure is 220 kPa and the cross-sectional area is 0.01 . At the
outlet, the cross-sectional area is 0.0025 and the velocity is 16 m/s. The elbow discharges
to the atmosphere. Determine the force required to hold the elbow in place.
Given: Steady flow of water through reducing elbow

Find: Force required to hold elbow in place

Solution:
Choose a fixed control volume.
N.B we have several surface force

44
Cont…

45
Cont…

46
Cont…

47
Cont…

48
 iii. Energy Equation
The energy change of a system during a process is equal to the net work and heat transfer
between the system and its surroundings. From 1st law of thermodynamics,

The transfer of any quantity (such as mass, momentum, and energy) is recognized at the
boundary as the quantity crosses the boundary.
Then the conservation of energy for a fixed quantity of mass can be expressed in rate form as

Where, e, the total stored energy per unit mass for each particle in the system, is related to the
internal energy per unit mass , the kinetic energy per unit mass , and the potential energy per
unit mass, gz, by the equation.

49
 Cont…
The pressure work equals the pressure force on a small surface element dA times the normal
velocity component into the control volume.
Since work is the dot product of force and related displacement, rate of work (or power) is the dot
product of force and related displacement per unit time.
The total pressure work is the integral over the control surface:

To obtain a relation for the conservation of energy for a control volume, we apply the
Reynolds transport theorem by replacing B with total energy E, and b with total energy per
unit mass e.

In words,

50
 Cont…
The net rate of heat transfer into the system is denoted with and the net rate of work transfer
into the system is labeled Heat transfer and work transfer are considered ‘’+’’ going into the
system ‘’-’’ and coming out.
The shear work due to viscous stresses occurs at the control surface and consists of the product
of each viscous stress and the respective velocity component
We do not consider either, since moving walls (such as fan blades or turbine runners) are
usually inside the control volume and are not part of the control surface.
Therefor the control volume formula for the first law of thermodynamics becomes:

In many engineering applications, the process is adiabatic; the heat transfer rate, , is zero. The
net heat transfer rate can also be zero. when
The work transfer rate , also called power, is positive when work is done on the contents of the
control volume by the surroundings. Otherwise, it is considered negative.

51
 Con…

Work is transferred across the control surface by a moving shaft. In rotary devices such as
turbines, fans, and propellers, a rotating shaft transfers work across that portion of the control
surface that slices through the shaft.
For a rotating shaft, the power transfer, is related to the shaft torque that causes the rotation,
and the angular velocity of the shaft, , by the relationship
where is the angular speed of the shaft in rad/s and n. is the number of revolutions of the shaft
per unit time, often expressed in rev/min or rpm.

52
 Con…
the first law of thermodynamics for the contents of a control volume

 Then the energy equation

But the enthalpy occurs in the control surface integral.

If the control volume has a series of one-dimensional inlets and outlets, the surface integral
reduces to a summation of outlet flows minus inlet flows:

53
 Bernoulli Equation
Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and elevation, and is valid in regions of
steady, incompressible flow where net frictional forces are negligible.

List of assumptions for Bernoulli equation

1. flow is steady

2. No shaft work: B.E is not applicable in a flow section that involves a pump, turbine, fan, or any other machine or impeller since
such devices disrupt the streamlines and carry out energy interactions with the fluid particles.
3. No heat transfer

4. Incompressible: This condition is satisfied by liquids and also by gases at Mach numbers less than about 0.3.
5. Frictionless (inviscid) (shear force due to viscosity is negligible)
6. Flow along stream line 54
 Con…

if there is only one stream entering and leaving the control volume, then

no change occurs in the internal energy

(i.e., no temperature change) of the fluid.

The elevation term, z, is related to the potential energy of the particle and is called the elevation head.
The pressure term, is called the pressure head and represents the height of a column of the fluid that is
needed to produce the pressure p. The velocity term, is the velocity head.
 The Bernoulli equation at any two points on the same streamline is:

55
 Practical applications of bernoulli’s equation
A venturimeter is a device which is inserted into pipeline to measure incompressible fluid
flow rates. It consists of a convergent section which reduces the diameter to between one-half to
one-fourth of the pipe diameters. This is followed by a divergent section. The pressure difference
between the position just before the venturi and at the throat of the venturi is measured by a
differential manometer. The working of the venturi is based on the Bernoulli’s principle,

orificemeter or orifice plate is a device (cheaper than a venturimeter) employed for measuring
the discharge of fluid through a pipe. It also works on the same principle of a venturimeter
The orificemeter is opening, usually round, located in the side wall of the tank or reservoir,
for measuring the flow of a liquid. The main feature of the orificemeter is that most of the potential
energy of the liquid is converted into kinetic energy of the free jet issuing through the orifice.
Pitot tube is one of the most accurate devices for velocity measurement. It works on the principle
that if the velocity of flow at a point becomes zero, the pressure there is increased due t conversion
of kinetic energy into pressure
It measures the stagnation pressure.

56
 Examples
1. Water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 600 mm and 400 mm at the bottom and
upper end respectively. The intensity of pressure at the bottom end is 350 kN/ and the pressure at
the upper end is 100 kN/. Determine the difference in datum head if the rate of flow through the
pipe is 60 litres/sec.

57
Cont…

Rate of flow;

58
 Cont…
2.Water is flows through a circular pipe with a constant radius of 10 cm. the speed and pressure
at point A is 4m/s and 250,000pa respectively. (a) what is the speed of the fluid at point B? (b)
what is the pressure at point B which is 10 m higher than point A?

59
 Cont…
3.Calculate the pressure and speed of water at point B and C as shown below.

60
 Exercise
4. water flows through a horizontal pipe with a cross-sectional area of 4 at a speed of 5 m/s with
a pressure of 300,000 pa at point A. at point B, the cross-sectional area is 2 . (a) what is the speed
of water at point B? (b) calculate the pressure at point B.

61
Con…

62
The end

63