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YQY - English PP Course Presentation
YQY - English PP Course Presentation
For example: pea and key both contain the same vowel, but in pea
the vowel is spelled ea and in key is spelled ey. Consequently,
phonemic alphabet is developed where one symbol always
corresponds to a single phoneme.
So, the phonemic alphabet of the vowel in pea, see, me and key
as /i/.
Phonemic Alphabet
Phonemic transcription is always enclosed in
slashes to distinguish it from conventional
orthography.
Vowels that are pronounced at one and the same place monophthongs, and
English has 12 of them.
Vowels that change character during their pronunciation, that is, they begin at one
place and move towards another place diphthongs, and English has 8 of them.
A glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and
without interruption triphthongs, and English has 5 of them.
Compare for example the monophthong in car with the diphthong in cow, or the
monophthong in girl with the diphthong in goal. The vowels of cow and goal both
begin at a given place and glide towards another one .
In goal the vowel begins as if it was [ə], but then it moves towards [ʊ].
Therefore it is written [əʊ], as in [gəʊl] goal, with two symbols, one for how it starts
and one for how it ends.
Some people speak of triphthongs for groups of diphthongs + schwa (ə), for
example:
[məʊər] mower
English monophthongs
English monophthongs (12 monophthongs):
1. /i:/ see, unique, feel
2. /ɪ/ wit, mystic, little
3. /e/ set, meant, bet
4. /æ/ pat, cash, bad
5. /ɑ/ half, part, father
6. /ɒ/ not, what, cost
7. /ɔ/ port, caught, all
8. /ʊ/ wood, could, put
9. /u/ you, music, rude
10./ʌ/ bus, come, but,
11./ə/ alone, butter
12./ɜ/ beard, word, fur
English diphthongs
English diphthongs (8 diphthongs):
Centering diphthong:
1. three (3) ending in /ə/ : /ɪə/, /eə/, /ʊə/
• /ɪə/ : beard, weird, fierce, ear, beer, tear
• /eə/: aired, cairn, scarce, bear, hair,
• /ʊə/: moored, tour, lure, sure, pure
Closing diphthong
2. three (3) ending in /ɪ/: /eɪ/, /aɪ/, /ɔɪ/
• /eɪ/ : paid, pain, face, shade, age, wait, taste, paper
• /aɪ/: tide, time, nice, buy, bike, pie, eye, kite, fine
• /ɔɪ/: void, loin, voice, oil, boil, coin, toy, Roy
Note: previously, the IPA symbols for /ʃ/ was /š/, /ʒ/ was /ž/, /tʃ/ was /č/, and /dʒ/ was /j/. This
change was due to the manner that affricates can be described as a stop plus a fricative.
Consonant Phonemes of English
The previous chart shows the consonant phonemes of English
in terms of three physical dimensions: place of articulation,
manner of articulation and voicing.
If we change the first consonant of the noun cat and insert [h] instead
we get the sentence:
[ðə hæt ɪz ɒn ðə mæt]
(2) The hat is on the mat.
Both have given you the same information although you perceive a
difference in the sounds used, that is, the woman has used [r], the regular
English / r / sound, whereas the man used the rolled lingual [R] instead.
They are transcribed phonetically respectively as [raɪt] and [Raɪt].
Phonemes
This difference in the pronunciation, which allows you to
assume that the wife is English and the husband
Scottish, doesn’t entail a change in meaning. The two
segments [r] and [R] can be used indifferently since
there is no change of meaning: the difference between
the two is said to be phonetic.
But…this was not the case for the substitution of [h] for
[k] in [kæt] - [hæt], which brings about a change in
meaning and is said to be phonological (or phonemic).
Minimal Pairs
A phoneme is a speech sound that can make one word
different from another in meaning. So, when there is a
difference between two otherwise identical strings of sound
and this difference results in a change of meaning, these two
strings are said to constitute a minimal pair.
Compare (AE):
• The difference between /t/ in : tea, eat, writer, eighth, two,
mountain
• The difference between /i:/ in: see, seed, seat, seen
• /i/ - /i:/
All allophones of a phoneme share the same set of distinctive features but
each one can also show additional features. For example the phoneme /p/ is
realized as [ph] in [ph ɪt], as it would be every time it occurs in a word as initial
consonant before a vowel, and as [p] in all other cases.
Please, prom, pray
Pit, pat, pot [ph] [phIt] [phat] [phɔt]
Because of allophones…
• slashes enclose phonemes: /t/
• square brackets enclose allophones: [t]
This is an important distinction!
Types of Distribution in Allophones:
Assimilate to incorporate
Examples:
• White pepper /waɪt ‘pepə/
If we pronounce this phrase rapidly, the phoneme /t/ in the word
“white” /waɪt/ becomes /p/ because of the influence of the phoneme
/p/ in the word “pepper’ /pepə/. So the phrase becomes /waɪt’pepə/
• On the house /ɒn ðə ‘haʊs/
If we pronounce this phrase rapidly, the phoneme /ð/ in the word
“the” /ðə/ becomes /n/, because of the influence of the phoneme
/n/ in the word “on” /ɒn/. So the phrase becomes /ɒn nə ‘haʊs/
Allophones
3. Elision: the omission of a sound for phonological reasons (Algeo, 1999).
Phonemic form
rules
phonetic form
In other words, phonological rules apply to the phonemic form to produce the phonetic
form.
The nasal has the same place of articulation as the stop following it:
/n/ [m] / __C[labial]
/n/ [ŋ] / __ C[velar]
/n/ [n] / elsewhere
Types of phonological rules
Dissimilation: When a sound changes one of its features to
become less similar to an adjacent sound, usually to make the
two sounds more distinguishable, with respect to some property.
Fifths /fifɵs/ /fifs/
One way words evolve over time is through metathesis, which is the transposition
of sounds or syllables in a word. After some time, if enough people pronounce the
word in that way, the new pronunciation can eventually be adopted best known
for the description of historical sound changes (sporadic).
Modern English ‘bird’, ‘first’ have earlier forms ‘brid’ & ‘frist’.
English Aspiration
/C[voiceless stops]/ [C[aspirated]] / $[stress]__
English Flapping
/C[alveolar oral stop]/ [ɾ] / V[stress]__ V[unstress]
Conceptually:
- The phoneme appears in its basic form in the mental lexicon
- When it needs to be changed into a different allophone, a
phonological rule applies to make that adjustment
- Phonological rules are part of the mental grammar of a
native speaker
Rule Writing
How to write a phonological rule:
The Form: A B / C __ D
A: affected segment
B: the change
C & D: the context or environment.
Rule Writing
Consider the following words:
• write -- ride
• rope -- robe
• lock -- log
• cute -- cued
• pick -- pig
• tap -- tab
Is there a difference in the vowel sounds? Yes ! The change-triggering
consonants /p t k/ all differ in the same way from their counterparts /b
d g/; they are voiceless, whereas the counterparts are voiced.
# Word boundary
C [-syllabic] segment
V [+syllabic] segment
+ Morpheme boundary
Rule-writing
(udel.edu/~koirala/phonology/day5.pdf)
Rule-writing
Rule-writing
Rule-writing
Rule-writing
Rule-writing
Acoustic Phonetics
Acoustic phonetics is a branch of phonetics that deals with the physical
characteristics of sound waves which carry speech sounds between
mouth and ear (transmission of sound).
Oscillogram
Speaker
Words
Phonemes
Praat
Speech acoustic analysis can be realized by using spectogram & oscillogram.
Amplitude
Time
Praat
Spectrogram: graphic representation of sounds in terms of their component
frequencies.
Represents:
• frequency (vertical axis)
• time (horizontal axis).
• third dimension (dark
shading acoustic energy
(F1, F2, F3, F4)
Praat
Frequency is the number of cycles completed per second measured in
Hertz (Hz).
When the cycle meets the axis for the second time, one cycle is completed.
Sine wave is the simplest kind of periodic wave; the lowest frequency of a
sine wave component is fundamental frequency (F0).
One cycle
Praat
Spectrogram shows
formants’ concentration
of acoustic energy.
Vowels are characterized
by four formants
(F1, F2, F3, F4).
Praat
Formants in PRAAT
are also shown by red
dotted lines in the
spectrogram.
Recording in a sound-
proof room will make
the dotted lines less.
Praat
Formants can be digitally tracked by formant-based speech production and
linear predictive coding (LPC) (Harrington, 2010).
They are usually classified by the part of the tongue that is raised: front,
middle or back, and according to the degree of rising which takes place,
namely: close, half-close, half-open and open.
For example, /i/ is located at the front of the mouth and produced with
unrounded lips and tongue, while /o/ is located at the back of the mouth and
produced with rounded lips and tongue.
Praat
Comparison of formant values is precarious across speakers of
different sex.
For adult females, the length of the vocal tract is around 13 cm
and for adult males, it can vary to over 18 cm (Maragakis,
2008).
The vocal tracts of women are shorter; therefore, they have
higher resonance frequencies than those of men (Flynn, 2011).
Female’s formant frequencies are roughly 10% to 15% higher;
therefore, they produce clearer speech compared to males
(Foulkes & Docherty, 1999; Simpson, 2009; Wang & van
Heuven, 2006).
Data for Vowel Analysis
(1) WORD LIST
Speakers produce words that contain the target vowels from a word list (elicited speech).
The rationale of word list is to have control over the phonetic environment of the vowels
being investigated (King, 2006). How?
• embed the words in a carrier sentence speakers read the word list and repeat
each word a number of times.
For example: “Say ___ again.”
• Lexical sets
• Read speech
Data for Vowel Analysis
No Vowel Word
1 eɪ bayed
2 aɪ bide
3 ɔɪ Boyd
4 əʊ bode
5 aʊ bout
6 ɪə beard
7 ʊə poor
8 eə bear
Data for Vowel Analysis
Lexical Set: the linguistic concept of lexical sets is a group
of words that share a specific form or meaning. This
means each word in the group refers to a similar
pronunciation of a particular group of words in a language.
For this reason, the Wells lexical set has been modified in
some studies. An example is a study by Hickey (1999) on
Dublin English. More words were added, which are MEAT,
GIRL, DANCE and PRIDE as those are deemed necessary
to capture the vowel realizations of Dublin English.
Data for Vowel Analysis
Read Speech
• Data are also collected from segments of read speech.
• Common used text in English phonetics: The North Wind
and The Sun (NWS)
• Using specific texts to collect vowels may result in not
obtaining all of the target vowels under study.
• King (2006): if the text is not exclusively created to
contain all target sounds; there is no control over
influences on vowel quality from different environments
and on the frequency of the target sounds.
Data for Vowel Analysis
(3) Spontaneous Speech
• Speech that is unrehearsed and produced spontaneously, because
vowels that are collected in citation form may be hyper-articulated
or articulated too carefully and do not correspond to true
representations of the vowels.
• Source: Interviews, have the speakers describe pictures,
recordings of a set of monologues such as the news and
commentaries , a televised series of talk shows, telephone
exchanges , two speakers chat freely and unmonitored for some
time while being recorded
• But, the disadvantage of obtaining the vowels from spontaneous
speech is that it may not cover all of the vowels being investigated,
and further prone to effects from elision, intonation, stress, vowel
reduction and other phenomenon related to connected speech.
Practice 1
Before recording:
• Choosing target words in English which covers all of the
monophthongs
• Choose two respondents, one boy and one girl
• They must be of the same age, born and bred in the same area
• Have no dental problems and healthy
F1 and F2
in Hertz
(Hz)
Practice 4
• Insert your measurements in Exel:
F2 (Bark) F2 (Bark)
17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
F1 (Bark)
F1 (Bark)
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
Our data is taken from the word “topi” to extract the vowel /o/ of Bahasa Indonesia. We
had recorded one boy and one girl age…, born and bred … who is living in … .
The result of our measurements are as follows: (copy paste your measurements from
Exel)
The measurement of the tokens in graph is as follows: (copy paste your vowel scatter
plot from Exel)
Based on the graph above, there are a number of outliers (mention this if there are any).
These outliers are caused by…(the first measurement of the researchers) or (the
production from the speaker him/herself). Therefore, we conducted a second
measurement on these outliers, and the outcome is as the following: (copy paste the
corrected graph from Exel)
The measurement of the tokens in average in graph is as follow: (copy paste your vowel
plot from Exel)
In conclusion, the data shows that the sound [o] from Girl is lower/higher than Boy, but
more fronted/back than Boy.
Syllables
A syllable is a unit of organization for a
sequence of speech sounds. For example, the
word water is composed of two syllables:
wa-ter.