Critical Thinking (BES-103)

Lecture 13
Flaws in Argument

Hadiqua Fazal
Asst Prof
Computer Science Department
Objectives

▷Fallacies
▷Personal Attack (Ad Hominem)
▷Look who’s talking
▷Bandwagon
▷straw man
▷Hasty generalization
▷Correlation and false correlation Argument
Fallacies
▷ Fallacies are errors in reasoning or arguments that can
lead to incorrect conclusions. They can be intentional or
unintentional and can occur in a variety of contexts,
including politics, advertising, and everyday
conversations.
▷ Fallacies can be used intentionally to mislead or deceive
an audience, or they can be the result of a lack of critical
thinking or understanding of the subject matter. They can
have serious consequences in areas such as politics,
where false or misleading arguments can be used to
justify policies that are not in the best interest of the
public.
Personal Attack (Ad Hominem)
▷ Ad hominem: This fallacy occurs when
someone attacks the character of the person
making an argument rather than addressing
the argument itself.
▷ For example, "I can't take your argument
seriously because you're a convicted
criminal." This reasoning is flawed because
the person's criminal history has nothing to
do with the validity of their argument.
Personal Attack (Ad Hominem)

Person 1:
▷ I promise to balance the budget in my first year as
governor!

Person 2:
▷ She promises to balance the budget, but she
couldn’t be smart enough because she never ran a
business.
Look who’s talking (tu quoque )

The tu quoque fallacy, also known as the "you

too" fallacy, occurs when someone attempts to
defend themselves or another person by
pointing out that the accuser is also guilty of
the same or a similar offense.
Example

▷ Person A: "You cheated on that exam. That's

not fair to the rest of us who worked hard
and earned our grades."
▷ Person B: "Well, you cheated on an exam last
year, so you have no right to call me out on it
now."
Explanation
In this example, Person B is committing the tu
quoque fallacy by attempting to deflect the
criticism by pointing out that Person A also
cheated on an exam in the past. Even if Person
A did cheat on an exam before, it does not
change the fact that cheating is wrong, and
Person B's actions are still unethical. By
bringing up Person A's past behavior, Person B
is not addressing the current situation and is
avoiding taking responsibility for their actions.
Bandwagon
▷ The bandwagon fallacy, also known as
the appeal to popularity fallacy, occurs
when someone tries to persuade
another person to accept a claim or
argument by suggesting that it is popular
or widely accepted.
Example

▷ Person A: "You should buy this

product because it's the most
popular one on the market.
Everyone is buying it, and you don't
want to be left behind, do you?
Explanation

In this example, Person A is using the bandwagon fallacy

to try to persuade the other person to buy a product. By
suggesting that the product is popular and widely
accepted, they are trying to create a sense of social
pressure to conform to the majority. However, this
argument is a fallacy because popularity alone does not
make something true or valuable. Additionally, the
argument is ignoring other factors that may be important,
such as the quality, price, and features of the product.
Straw man
The straw man fallacy occurs when someone
misrepresents or exaggerates an opponent's
argument in order to make it easier to attack.
Example
▷ Person A: "I believe we should invest more
in renewable energy sources to reduce our
dependence on fossil fuels."
▷ Person B: "So, you want to completely shut
down the oil and gas industry and leave
thousands of workers unemployed? That's a
terrible idea!"
Explanation
In this example, Person B misrepresents Person A's
argument by implying that they want to completely
eliminate the oil and gas industry, which is an
extreme position that Person A did not actually
express. By creating this exaggerated and distorted
version of Person A's argument, Person B makes it
easier to attack and portrays Person A's viewpoint as
unreasonable. This misrepresentation allows Person
B to attack a position that Person A did not actually
hold, rather than engaging with the original
argument.
Hasty generalization
The hasty generalization fallacy, also known as
the fallacy of insufficient statistics or
overgeneralization, occurs when a conclusion is
drawn based on insufficient evidence or a
limited sample size. It involves making a broad
generalization about a group or a phenomenon
based on a small or unrepresentative sample.
Example

Person A: "I met two people from Country X,

and they were both rude to me. Therefore, all
people from Country X must be rude."
Explanation

In this example, Person A makes a hasty generalization

by drawing a broad conclusion about all people from
Country X based on just two encounters. This
conclusion is unwarranted because it assumes that the
behavior of two individuals represents the behavior of
an entire group. The sample size is too small to provide
a reliable basis for making such a generalization, and
there may be numerous people from Country X who
are not rude.
Correlation and False Correlation

A correlation argument refers to the use of

correlation as evidence or support for a
particular claim or argument. It involves
presenting a correlation between two
variables and using it to make inferences or
draw conclusions about the relationship
between those variables.
Example

▷ “There is a strong correlation between

hours of study and academic performance,
as students who study more tend to achieve
higher grades.”
▷ Research has shown a positive correlation
between regular exercise and improved
mental well-being, indicating that physical
activity can have positive effects on mental
health."
Correlation and False Correlation

False correlation refers to the perception of a

relationship or association between variables
when, in reality, there is no actual causal
connection or statistical correlation.
Example
1. "There is a false correlation between the amount of money
spent on education and student success. While adequate
funding is important, student success depends on various
factors such as teaching quality, resources, and individual
effort."
▷ "There is a false correlation between the consumption of
carrots and improved eyesight. While carrots contain
nutrients beneficial to eye health, consuming more carrots
does not guarantee enhanced eyesight."
Identify the fallacies

Person A: "I think we should invest more in

public education to improve the quality of
schools."
Person B: "So, you're saying we should throw
unlimited amounts of money at schools without
any accountability? That's absurd!“

Straw Man
Identify the fallacies

I ate at one Mexican restaurant and

didn't like the food. Mexican cuisine
must be terrible.“

Hasty Generalization
Identify the fallacies

Person A: "You should stop smoking. It's harmful

to your health."
Person B: "Well, you smoke too, so who are you
to tell me what to do?“

Look who’s talking

Identify the fallacies

"Nine out of ten dentists recommend this

toothpaste brand. Join the majority and
use it for optimal oral health.“

Bandwagon
Identify the fallacies

▷ Person A: "I believe climate change is a

pressing issue that requires immediate action."
▷ Person B: "You're just a science nerd. Your
opinion is biased and can't be trusted.“

Personal Attack
Identify Correlation and false correlation

“Having more books on a shelf leads to

higher intelligence levels”

False Correlation
Identify Correlation and false correlation

“Employee job satisfaction and better

productivity.“

Correlation