HF Two

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 Need to take HF into account

 Accidents attributable to maintenance error: June 1990 BAC one-
eleven, 1988 ALLOHA Airlines B 737
 Murphy’s law on work
 Human performance and limitations: perception, vision, hearing,
attention, information processing, learning &Memory, attention
 Factors affecting performance: health, sleep, fatigue, stress,
alcohol, drugs, medication
 Social psychology: personality, character, teamwork, motivation,
interaction between individuals, communication:
incoming/outgoing shifts
contents
 The physical environment: heating, lighting,
ventilation, noise, vibration
 Repetitive tasks, visual inspection
 Models of human errors: the SHELL Model,
James reason’s Swiss Cheese Model on latent
errors, Heinrich’s incident/accident ratio
 Hazards in the work place: electricity,
compressed air, acids, protective clothing
Accidents on the rise
 In spite of the technological advances made in the
communication and navigation aids: radio beacons,
attitude indicator, altimeter, rate of climb, ILS, gyro, air
speed indicator, DME, aircraft communication
addressing and reporting system (ACARS), Full
authority digital engine control (FADEC), cabin
pressure control (CPC), Decoder/encoder Unit, Flight
management guidance & control (FMGC), Fuel control
unit etc etc.
 Not a week passes without an accident!!!!!
Reconciling man with the machine
 The aviation maintenance personnel work in
highly sophisticated aircraft with complex
inbuilt systems.
 Hence they need to be trained on upgraded
technologies and new systems in order to
provide an error free maintenance.
Training to cope with the pace of the
industry
 The maintenance personnel should be trained in
a way to enable them to repair, analyze and
certify the systems as per the standards of the
Aircraft manufacturers and the Aviation
authorities.
 And they are.
 Why do accidents occur?
Errors, Errors, Errors
 There are design errors, manufacture errors,
flight operation errors, maintenance errors,
management errors, ATC errors, CAA errors.
 Though the aircraft is fully systematized and
computerized, though the industry is heavily
regulated, errors and accidents are on the rise.
Design errors
 The compact aircraft and components. Why?
Money-making?
 The defective oil pipe on the Rolls Royce Trent
500 engine bursting on take-off after a C check.
 Did the manufacturer violate the instructions of
the designers?
Maintenance errors are due to:
 The dis-assembly of the components and the
failure to re-assemble them properly according
to procedure.
 The re-assembly and installation are the areas
where errors occur irrespective of who does the
job.
Maintenance errors
 According to Pratt & Whitney in their 1992
survey, the major causes of the 120 in-flight
engine shutdowns on Boeing 747 aircraft were
mainly due to:
Causes of engine shut down during
flight
 Incomplete installation (33%)
 Damaged on installation (14.5%)
 Improper installation (11%)
 Equipment not installed or missing (11%)
 Foreign object damage (6.5%)
 Improper fault isolation, inspection (6%)
 Equipment not activated or deactivated (4%)
Some of the other related causes are
 Complex maintenance related tasks
 Time pressure for delivering the aircraft
 Fatigue of the maintenance personnel
 Maintenance procedures not followed
 Usage of outdated maintenance manuals
Analysis of past aircraft accidents
due to maintenance errors
 During the 10 year period from 1988 to 1997 there
were 1474 such accidents caused by maintenance
errors.
 On an average 18% of the aviation accidents were
mainly due to maintenance errors.
 Out of the reported accidents around 20% of them
were due to incomplete installation of parts and the
next most frequent errors were due to improper
maintenance inspection.
Error-making
 Even under the best of circumstances, people make
mistakes.
 They make mistakes by virtue of being human.
 Different individuals have different capabilities,
different levels of training, different perceptions,
different methods of reacting to external perceptions,
different interpretation of information, different
physical, emotional and psychological conditions
Individual differences
 Different people react differently to external
stimuli.
 That’s why responses are different.
 Does a blue wire look blue to you in a poorly lit
environment? Is there a chance of you crossing
wires because of that ? what would be the
outcome of crossed wires?
Errors are deviations from Standard
operating procedures
 Errors are the basis of incidents and accidents.
 When you fail to identify a hazard in the work
place, you’re causing an error to be made.
 What hazards exist in your work place?
Some of the major accidents
attributed to poor maintenance
 In 1979, there were 272 casualties due to the
crash of a DC-10 aircraft.
 In 1991, an Embrarer 120 carrying 13 persons
crashed due to a structural damage. The cause of
the accident was due to failure in replacing the
attachment screws during the periodic
maintenance operations.
Errors due to design problems
 to ensure access and visibility, human factors
specialists conduct ergonomic analyses to assess
the human capability to perform maintenance
procedures under different circumstances.
Implications of design problems
 For example, when a mechanic needs to turn a
valve from an awkward position, it is important
that the force required to turn the valve must be
within the mechanic's capability in that posture.
Ergonomics andweather
 For another example, when a maintenance
operation must be accomplished in poor weather
at night, secure footing and appropriate handling
forces are necessary to protect the mechanic
from a fall or from dropping a piece of
equipment.
The need to …
 There is a growing need to develop a human
factors awareness training program for
maintenance engineers to help them benefit from
human factors principles and applications in
their work.
Are you…?
 Acrophobic? Afraid of heights?
 Claustrophobic? Afraid of working in closed
places?
 Be assertive. Voice your concerns.
 Management will listen to you. They do not
need an extra accident.
Maintenance Error Decision Aid
(MEDA)
 MEDA is based on the philosophy that errors
result from a series of related factors.
 In maintenance practices, those factors typically
include misleading or incorrect information,
design issues, inadequate communication, time
pressure, stress and fatigue.
 In 1991 Boeing concluded a 10-year study that
showed that flight crew deviation from
established procedures contributed to nearly 50
percent of all hull-loss accidents.
 The aviation industry still lacks sufficient
knowledge about the reasons for these
deviations
The safety policy and the MOE
 The MOE reflects the organization’s safety policy.
 How often do we conduct fire drills?
 Do we encourage staff to report occurrences?
 What do we do to prevent accidents?
 Are our technicians safety- oriented?
 How often are HF recurrent training courses conducted?
 Are incidents investigated and the outcomes circulated?
In the days of early technology, human error
was the cause of many safety related incidents
Human errors continued to repeat
even with advanced technology
Poor human factors could result in an accident like this.
A300 Destroyed in Gamco Fire at Abu Dhabi
What is the fundamental objective
Aviation Safety Management System
of our business organization??

Profit Profit
Profit
Profit
Profit
Profit
Profit
Profit
Profit
Profit
Profi
Profit
t Profit
Safety management – Rationale
In order to achieve its production objectives, the

management of any aviation organization requires the
management of many business processes.
Managing safety is one such business process.
Safety management is a core business function just as

financial management, HR management, etc.
This brings about a potential dilemma for management.

Management Dilemma
Management levels
Resources Resources
Protection Production
Management Dilemma
Reso
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s
Man
agem
ent l
evel
s Res
ourc
es
Protection
Production
Catastrophe
ur ces
Management Dilemma Reso
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ent le
nag em
es Ma
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Reso
Production
Protection
Bankruptcy
Safety space
Bankruptcy
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Protection
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Saf
Catastrophe
Production
The potential for human error
 Our capacity to perceive what is going on in our

working environment by sight, touch, smell and
hearing together with our capacity to remember,
process information and act upon it is relevant in
the context of human error.
What does Safety mean?
 Zero Accidents? Is that possible given all the human factors
leading to error making?
 Management and line personnel must have a common perception
of Safety while conducting maintenance tasks.
 HF must be taken into account while assigning maintenance tasks
to technicians: appreciating distractions, fatigue, stress, pressure,
lack of resources, deadlines and time pressure, lack of knowledge
and training, phobia, encouraging occurrence reporting and
teamwork, promoting individual and group, situational awareness,
promoting trust , respect and motivation., inadequate shift hand
over, poor A/C design, Eid, Ramadan and Christmas holidays
Maintenance errors
 Nose wheel axle washers omitted during double nose
wheel change at line maintenance base.
 Brake unit locking bolt omitted during brake change.
 Aircraft flaps damaged during hangar C check
 Functional check not carried out following maintenance.
 Leading edge slats damaged during hangar A check.
 Engine boroscope plug not replaced during hangar check.
 Spacer not replaced after a wheel change
Implications of error
 An incident is due to a human error at any stage
of aircraft design, manufacture, maintenance,
ramp and flight operation.
 The accident results in a huge cost to the owner,
operator and the insurance company.
 The insured costs are for hull loss, property
damage and personal liability for the passengers
and crew.
Error management
 The Aviation Industry has had safety as a goal
for many years and has targeted the improvement
of safety in all facets of its operation. This effort
has been effected through the development of:
 Safer Aircraft Designs
 System and Structural Redundancy
 Improved Working Practices
 Introducing Quality Assurance
Error management
 Better Training of the Staff
 Improved Support Systems for the Aircrew
and Engineers
 Improved National and International
Regulations
ICAO Predictions
 Despite advances in technology, ICAO predicts
one accident per week.
 Despite all regulations, most of the problems lie
in human error not in systems
Identifying hazards
 Genuine safety comes from developing ‘safety

awareness’ which is the same as ‘road sense’
when driving.
 The basic points of safety:
 Learn the safe way of doing each task.
 If you do not understand – ASK for an
explanation.
 If you are not taught – ASK for instruction.
Identifying hazards
 Use the safe method in practice.
 Be constantly on guard against careless actions by
yourself or others.
 Practise good housekeeping at all times.
 Co-operate promptly in the event of an accident or
fire.
 Report all accidents to your supervisor/QA.
 Draw your supervisor’s attention to any potential
hazard.
Hazard are not difficult to identify
 Sharp edges cut.
 Heat or flames burn.
 Acid destroys.
 power driven rollers or other revolving parts can trap fingers
 Anything moving can be dangerous.
 Anything heavy can be dangerous.
 Electricity can burn or destroy.
 Falls can injure.
 Anything incorrectly supported may fall.
Remember
 You have a moral and legal responsibility not to
release an aircraft after maintenance if you have
the least doubt that it is not airworthy.
 An unworthy aircraft is a hazard.
Accident due to Flaws in
manufacture
 Components could be produced and released
with flaws in them.
 Are manufacturers aware of this?
 Quanta's A380 oil pipe burst during flight
causing engine to catch fire.
 AD issued to replace same pipes on all similar
engines due to manufacture problems.
Accident due to improper maintenance
procedure.
 In May 79, an American DC 10 rotated to lift off at
Chicago O’Hare Airport.
 Left engine fell off and crashed back onto the runway,
killing 273 people from poor maintenance error.
 Engines were fitted using forklifts as a shortcut
damaging the pylon structure.
 Management was aware that procedure was being used.
 When the accident was investigated, little was done to
look at the human factors that led up to the accident.
 Instead, attention focused on the systems that failed.
Does human factors training affect our
judgment?
 The Boeing 737 fuselage ripping open.

 The cockpit window blowing out on the BAC-
11.
Good communication
 Many companies are working on a safety culture.
 Some provide HF training for maintenance and ramp
personnel.
 Some carry out HF investigations of maintenance
incidents to understand what is causing them.
 Some are building an incident data bank of errors to
analyze them.
 Some provide staff with feedback on errors.
INJURIES RELATED TO WORK PLACE 2005 (JAN-DEC)
WORK PLACE NO. OF RATE%

EMPLOYEES
HANGARS 307 7.1
SHOPS 190 2.6
TECH STORES 35 20
INCIDENT RATE 2004 9.3%

INCIDENT RATE 2005 6%
UNSAFE CONDITION RATE 6%
UNSAFE ACT RATE 94%
WORK INJURIES BY TYPE OF ACCIDENT 2005 (JAN- DEC)
TYPE NO. CASES RATE% DAYS LOST

FALL FROM ELEVATION 04 11.8
ELECTRICAL SHOCK 00 00
STRUCK BY OR AGAINST 07 20.5
FLYING OBJECT INTO THE 01 2.9
EYE
SLIPPING 09 26.4
CHMICAL SPLASH 03 8.8
CAUGHT IN BETWEEN 06 17.6
DEFFECTIVE EQUIPMENT 02 5.9
LIFTING 02 5.9
TOTAL 34 100 400
PART OF BODY RATE%
EYES 8.8
HEAD 5.9
BACK 14.7
HANDS 5.9
KNEE 8.8
FINGERS 11.8
LEG 2.9
TOES 00
SHOULDER 17.6
CHEST 2.9
FEET 17.6
16
15
Injuries Related to Work Place
14 (2004 Jan-Dec) (2005 Jan-Dec)
13
12
11.4
11
10
8 7.4
Rate %
7.1
7
6 5.7
5
3 2.6 2.8
2
1
Work Place Hangar Hangar Shops Shops Stores Stores

2004 2005 2004 2005 2004 2005
9
8
Injuries
7 (2005 Jan-Dec)
6 X
Injuries Per Month
X X
5 X
3 X
X X
2 X
X X
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
Ratio of incidents to fatal accidents
 We need to record and trace the history of human
error.
 Henriche’s ratio states that there are about 600
incidents for every fatal accident.
 The accidents are the logical result of many
incidents.
 If we record and reduce the number of incidents, we
will be on our way to reducing the number of
accidents.
Why accidents?
 Accidents are related more to the way equipment

is used than to the equipment itself.
 Aircraft could be inadequately designed,
improperly manufactured, incorrectly
maintained or misused by pilot/technicians.
Definition of Hazards:
Any existing or potential condition in the

work place which, by itself or by
interacting with other variables, can result
in unwanted effects of deaths, injuries,
property damage, and other losses.
The best mechanic
 Our ability to inspect aircraft for cracks or
corrosion is not as good as we think it is.
 A mechanic checking a row of 500 rivets begins
to lose interest somewhere around rivet number
50 if not earlier.
 The best mechanic will not detect 100% of the
detectable cracks 100% of the time.
HUMAN FACTORS
MURPHY’S LAW
“If anything can be done incorrectly then

someone will do it incorrectly”
HUMAN FACTORS
How many times can it be assembled

incorrectly?
How many times can it be assembled correctly

as shown?
HUMAN FACTORS
This exercise illustrates Murphy’s Law. One of
the major causes of human error in
maintenance is the incorrect installation or
omission of aircraft parts and components.
Accidents can occur because of one error or

may be the result of several quite unrelated
errors.
Record keeping
 If any thing goes wrong, records will show the

history and where the error lies.
 This is not for punishment purposes, but to find
out what went wrong with a view to learning and
putting procedures into place.
Error defined
 An error is a deviation from standard

operating procedures.
 Why do some people deviate from SOP’s?
 Are SOP’s accurate?
 They are too detailed and time consuming.
 That’s why professional technicians take shortcuts.
Gordon Dupont’s Dirty Dozen
 Even when you comply with SOP’s, errors are
likely to happen because of too much distraction,
pressure, stress, complacency and fatigue.
 At the same time, there is too little time to do the
task, not enough resources, lack of teamwork, lack
of communication, lack of attention to details, lack
of knowledge, and lack of assertiveness on your
part.
 Errors occur because of too many norms.
The dirtiest three
 Pressure
 Stress
 Fatigue
 They are the dirtiest because they involve
psychological, emotional and physiological
conditions.
Why errors?
 Errors occur even under the best of

circumstances.
From data analysed by the CAA in 1992, Human Error in
Aircraft Maintenance was due to the following:
 From data analysed by the CAA in 1992, Human Error

in Aircraft Maintenance was due to the following:
 Incorrect installation of components
 Fitting of wrong parts
 Electrical wiring discrepancies
 Loose objects left in aircraft
 Inadequate lubrication
 Access panels/fairings, cowlings not secured
 Fuel/oil caps and fuel panels not secured
 Gear pins not removed before departure
the following Maintenance Errors
occurred at Britannia Airways:

Nosewheel axle washers omitted during double
nosewheel change at Line Maintenance Base.
 Brake unit locking bolt omitted during brake change at
Line Base.
 Aircraft flaps damaged during hangar ‘C’ check.
 Functional check of landing gear not carried out
following maintenance.
 Leading edge slats damage during hangar ‘A’ check
 .Engine boroscope plug not replaced during hangar
check.
The company found the most common
contributory factors for Human Error in these
examples to be as follows:
 Lack of Resource Planning
 Job Distraction
 Lack of Communication
 Inadequate Shift Handover
 Lack of Assertiveness
 Aircraft design
 Perceived Pressure
 Inadequate Maintenance Aids
 Christmas/ Ramadan/ Eid
Lessons Learnt
 Research carried out by:
– NASA
– Leading Airline Corporations
– International Civil Aviation Authorities and Accident
Investigation Units
– Universities Worldwide
 Human performance is cited as the causal
factor in 70-80% of aviation accidents.
HUMAN FACTORS
WHO MAKES MISTAKES
Flight Crews
Maintenance Crews
Ground Crews
ATC
Designers
Manufactures
Regulators
EVERYONE
HUMAN FACTORS
Using the correct laid down procedures for

paperwork will ensure that if something goes
wrong then the person committing the error
can be traced.
HUMAN FACTORS
Human Performance And Limitations
Physical Conditions
Psychological Condition.
Liveware
Variations in
Performance
& limitations
 Physical size & shape

 Physical needs (sustenance, sleep etc)
 Input/Output Characteristics
 Information processing
 Environmental tolerances (temp, pressure, humidity,
enclosed space, stress &
boredom)
Liveware – Hardware
 Ergonomics
 Displays
 Instrument interpretation
 Scanning & detection
 Work space
 Controls with proper
movement, coding
and location
Liveware – Software
 Non-physical aspects of systems

 Symbology and computer programmes
 Procedures (SOP’s, normal, abnormal or emergency drills)
 Rules and regulations i.e. company and authority
 Training manuals & document design
i.e. content and layout
Liveware – Environment
 Disturbed biological rhythms - Sleep disturbance and

deprivation / transmeridian travel
 Pressurised cabin
 Noise & vibration
 Weather conditions
Perception
 Perception is the way we react to external

stimuli.
 The human senses are the channels through
which we receive information about the world
around us.
Factors which affect human
performance
 The condition of the senses

 The effect of the environment/ the workplace
 How does your body work?
Live Ware And Routine Work
 Many of the tasks of the aircraft engineer require
physical effort ranging from visual inspections
to more complex tasks such as engine
installation and testing.
 The task in hand may require standing, sitting
or some other position of the body.
 It will require the use of the senses with correct
body movements as commanded by the brain.
Channels of Perception
 Vision
 Hearing
 Smell
 Touch
 taste
Function of the Eye
The channel of vision
 Seeing is the most important channel of

perception as it has a good impact on decision
making.
 We are more aroused to passion by visual inputs
than by feel or smell
 Subliminal perception and how it influences
DM.
Color blind?
 If so, ask for help.
 Improve lighting conditions.
 Cons not sensitive to color
 Rods detect only white, black, grey colors.
 Rods sensitive at lower light levels.
 Color blind technicians are hired with
limitations.
Doing a visual inspection?
 Is the light sufficient?

 Scan the object under test.
 Use a magnifying glass.
 If you see nothing, change the angle at which
you look at the object.
 It could be cracked or corroded
Function of the Eye
 The eye is a complex optical system - very similar to a camera.
 Vision begins when light enters the eye through the cornea, a
powerful focusing surface.
 From the cornea, it travels through a clear aqueous fluid, and
passes through a small aperture called the pupil.
 As muscles in the iris relax or constrict, the pupil changes size
to adjust the amount of light entering the eye.
 Light rays are focused through the lens, and proceed through a
clear jelly-like substance in the centre of the eye called
vitreous, which gives it form and shape.
Function of the Eye
 When light rays finally land on the retina, the
part of the eye similar to film in a camera, they
form an upside-down image.
 The retina converts the image into an electrical
impulse that travels along the optic nerve to the
brain,
 where it is interpreted as an upright image.
Anatomy of the Eye
Anatomy of the Eye
Parts of the Eye
 Vision begins when light enters the eye through the
cornea.
 From the cornea, it travels through a clear aqueous fluid
called aqueous humor, and then passes through a small
aperture called the pupil.
 Muscles in the area called the iris relax or constrict,
making the pupil change size.
 Light rays are focused through the lens, and proceed
through a clear jelly-like substance in the centre of the
eye called vitreous, which gives it form and shape.
Parts of the Eye
 Light rays land on the retina, they form an
upside-down image.
 The retina converts the image into an
electrical impulse that travels along the optic
nerve to the brain,
 The brain turns the image and interprets it as
an upright image.
 Focusing is accomplished by an area called the
Fovea.
Parts of the Eye
 Other parts of the eye support the main activity of
sight:
 Some carry fluids (such as tears and blood) to
lubricate or nourish the eye.
 Others are muscles that allow the eye to move. Some
parts protect the eye from injury (such as the lids and
the epithelium of the cornea).
 Some are messengers, sending sensory information to
the brain (such as the pain-sensing nerves in the
cornea and the optic nerve behind the retina).
Retina
 The Retina is made up of two differing light
sensitive cell types;
 Rods
 Cones
 The cells detect different colours of light;

 RODS only detect Black & White
 CONES are able to detect Colours
 The FOVEA only contains Cone cells.

 Enables sharp focus. (see 9.02.2 page 4).
The eye and how it works
 The eye receives light information from the outside
word and passes it to the brain.
 The eye is similar to a camera.
 Light is taken in thru the cornea and lens.
 The cornea acts as a focusing device and is responsible
for 70-80% of the total focusing ability of the eye.
 The iris controls the amount of light entering the eye by
altering the size of the hole in the middle.
 It can change shape quickly to cater for changing light
levels.
The retina
 It is a light sensitive screen lying at the back of the

eyeball.
 On this screen, there are light sensitive cells, which
generate an electric charge when light falls on them.
 This charge is passed to the brain thru the optic nerve.
 The optic nerve enters the back of the eyeball with
small blood vessels needed to bring oxygen to the cells
of the eye.
The fovea
 The central part of the retina is the fovea.
 It is composed of cone cells and only at this part
that vision is 20/20 or 6/6.
 The figures refer to the individual’s ability to
discriminate at varying distances.
 Any thing that needs to be examined in detail is
automatically brought to focus on the fovea.
The cons and rods
 The cons of the retina are the only cells which
detect color.
 Rods detect black and white colors.
 Rods are more sensitive to lower light levels.
 In poor light levels we see only in black or white
or varying shades of grey.
 At night time, with a dimly lit flight deck, the
color coding of the instruments must be bright
enough for cone vision to be used.
HUMAN FACTORS
Blind Spots
An area of the retina where it joins the

optic nerve.
No light sensitive cells so an image falling
here can not be “seen” by the brain.
Getting over the problem of the blind
spot
 Blink a lot, move the eyes frequently, move your

head to change the image in the eye.
HUMAN FACTORS
Damage to your eyes can happen

in a second
Protect them for life

HUMAN FACTORS
Eye Protection
Should be worn at all times when

working with or around hazardous
materials.
Different types available dependant or

work being carried out.
Protect your eyes
 Small pieces of metal could be flung into your
eyes.
 Use personal protective equipment.
 Laser light can burn the retina.
 Wear glasses that adjust to light differences.
Visual defects
 Hypermetropia-long sightedness: image falling behind
the retina. A blurring vision occurs when looking at
close objects.
 With age and loss of lens elasticity can produce long
sightedness, also known as presbyopia, which can be
corrected by using a convex lens.
 In short sightedness- myopia, the eyeball is larger than
normal and the image is in front of the retina.
 Objects close to the eyes may be in focus.
 Distant objects are a blur. A concave lens is needed.
A sense of orientation and balance
Function of the ear
 The ear converts sound waves into nerve
impulses for transmission to the brain.
 The specialised receptor cells of the ear do not
respond directly to sound waves.
 instead they respond to mechanical stimulation.
The mechanical movements in the ear must
reflect the physical properties of sound –
amplitude, pitch and timbre.
The human gyro
 The ear has two nerves, one for sound and the
other for balance.
 The semi circular canals are filled with a fluid
that acts like a gyro.
 It senses movement in any direction.
 The fluid is inside the vestibule, which also
contains hair follicles.
Within the middle ear are three small bones called the hammer
(malleus), anvil (incus) and the stirrup (stapes). Movement of the
eardrum is transmitted through these bones (ossicles) to the
membrane on the inner ear’s cochlea.
 The vibrating membrane causes the fluid in the
cochlea to vibrate.
 Inside the cochlea there is a fine membrane
covered in tiny hair like cells.
 The movement of these hair like cells will be
dependant on the volume and pitch of the sound.
Nerves attach to the base of the hair
follicles
 From the base of these hair cells are nerves

which lead directly to the brain where the tiny
electrical currents are decoded as sound patterns.
hearing
 Amplitude, frequency and timbre
 The degree of loudness expressed in decibels
(dB)
 Frequency gives the sound its pitch or tone and is
measured in hertz.
 The human ear is capable of detecting
frequencies between 15 hertz and 20,000 hertz.
 Dogs can hear up to 50, 000 hertz and bats above
100, 000 hertz
Sound frequency
 The FREQUENCY of a sound wave gives the

sound its pitch or tone, and is measured in cycles
per second or hertz (Hz).
Timbre or quality
 Mixture of sound waves.

 Most sounds are complex mixtures of different
waveforms from other vibrating structures
within the device that produces the sound.
Physical Properties of Sound
DECIBEL RATING SOUND INCREASE IN
RELATIVE
ENERGY
0 Hearing Threshold 0
30 Whisper (library) 1,000 fold
Normal conversation
50-60 1,000,000 fold
(noise in an office)
90 Shouting 1 billion fold

120 Gunshot (nearby) Gunshot (nearby)
large jet large jet
Sound levels above 90dB
 Sound levels above 90dB can cause hearing
damage and the longer the exposure the greater
the damage.
 90dB – 8hrs, 103dB – 30 mins, 116dB – 1
minute.
Hearing damage is not yet treatable.
 Ear protection should always be worn near

running jet aircraft or operating noisy
machinery.
 Using rivet guns inside a fuel tank without
protection could cause damage to the eardrums.
HUMAN FACTORS
Hearing Damage
Conductive Deafness.
Noise Induced Deafness.
Hearing Loss With Age.
Conductive Deafness
 Any damage to the conducting system, the
ossicles or the eardrum, will result in a
degradation of hearing.
 It is possible that perforations of the eardrum
will result in scarring of the tissue thus reducing
its ability to vibrate freely.
 A blow to the ear may cause damage to the
small bones in the middle ear again limiting the
transfer of vibrations.
Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL)
 Loud noises can damage the very sensitive
membrane in the cochlea and the fine structures
on this membrane.
 The loss of hearing may at first be temporary but
continued exposure to loud noise will result in
permanent loss of hearing.
 The early symptoms are an inability to hear high
pitched notes as these are normally detected by
the finer cells which suffer the greatest damage.
Presbycusis (Loss through ageing)
 Young children can hear high pitched noises outside the

range of adults.
 The loss of some hearing is natural as one grows older.
 The frequency of sound that the human ear is most
sensitive to is about the frequency of a woman’s
scream.
 It is the higher frequencies that we lose the ability to
hear first.
Eustachian Tubes
 Located between the middle ear and the top of

the nose.
 This tube connects the hollow cavity of the
cochlea to the outside air to equalise the pressure
in the middle ear with ambient pressure.
EFFECT OF ALCOHOL
 Alcohol has a lower specific gravity than water.
 Alcohol in the middle ear may dilute the liquids and
cause unfamiliar results for certain movements, leading
to disorientation.
 Alcohol in the fleshy stalk of the otolith may persist for
days after all traces of alcohol have vanished from the
blood.
 It is not unusual for even small movements of the head
to cause disorientation or motion sickness up to three
days after alcohol was last consumed.
PRESSURISATION
 If you are going to be in the flight deck when

cabin pressure testing, then you should be
medically cleared.
 Ear damage, such as a perforated eardrum can
be a result and you should not have a cold/flu
that might block the eustachian tubes/ sinuses.
HUMAN FACTORS
Balance
Semi-circular canals
arranged in 3 planes
and filled with fluid.
HUMAN FACTORS
Motion Sickness
Mismatch between visual

input and balance
signals to the brain.
HUMAN FACTORS
Effect of Alcohol
Lower specific gravity

than water and will
dilute the fluid in the
ear causing unfamiliar
results given to the
brain.
Brain functions
 The brain also receives information about oxygen and
CO2 in the blood, the need for food and pressure in the
bladder
 Outputs from the brain can be automatic functions, such
as breathing, heart rate, balance and temperature
control.
 Non-automatic output functions for example are eating,
talking and running.
 Several of these functions are controlled by the hind
brain where higher thought and reasoning is believed to
be part of the cerebrum.
Actions/Feedback
 The various sections of the brain will perhaps produce motor

responses.
 the warning switch is moved to the off/cancel position. When
the action is carried out it will produce ‘feedback’ that the switch
has operated correctly, audibly with a click sound, the feel of the
switch and the visual feedback that the light is out.
 When we drive a car around a bend at speed (perhaps) we get
visual and acceleration clues from our eyes and ears respectively.
Also you have forces felt through the steering wheel.
 From all these stimuli/inputs you sense the position of the car
ready to make steering corrections to maintain your position on
the road.
Response
 Response to stimuli will depend on the speed of

perception, decision making and finally, the
speed of motor control and physical movement
of the body’s muscles.
 If we expect a known stimulus and are prepared,
then when it happens we are likely to give an
accurate response quickly.
Factors Affecting Perception
 Response times are affected by factors such as
poor nutrition, dehydration, focusing from near
to far, empty field myopia, distraction and
fatigue.
 Response times also reduce with age and
alcohol.
MOTOR MEMORY
 This memory is associated with the skill of controlling hand,

feet, leg movement etc.
 When performing or learning a new task a great deal of central
processing of information will be required by the brain. Firstly
in the short term memory and then with rehearsal, stored in the
long term memory.
 Learning to drive a car is a good example. At the first stage of
learning, the Cognitive Stage, we have to understand what each
control in the car is for and how it works. The first time we set
off in the car we have to think hard about what we are doing.
The associative stage of learning
 With a little practice each element of the driving

process is learnt, for example the use of the
clutch whilst gear changing, yet still looking
ahead.
 When well rehearsed, all the elements of car
driving become automatic.
Selective Attention
 This is the process whereby the inputs are sampled and

the central processor concentrates on the task in hand.
 Other inputs can be monitored in a subtle way.
 The phenomenon is known as the ‘cocktail party’
effect.
Divided Attention
 If the task in hand is not so complicated as to warrant
‘single channel’ monitoring then the attention can be
divided between 2 or more channels.
 In driving a car, and talking to a friend, for instance the
following channels could be attended.
 The conversation with a friend.
 The road conditions.
 Also monitoring the motor memory operations.
What kind of attention is involved?
 Installing a component?
 Watching TV.
 Watching your favorite TV program.
 Driving a car
 Operating machinery
 Attending a meeting with a VIP
FACTORS AFFECTING
ATTENTION
 Stress
 This will usually increase a person’s arousal and affect
the perception process.
 With high stress levels sampling rate is increased but to
a narrower range of stimuli. This means that in a
stressed condition a person is likely to miss something
that is important because the attention is reduced to a
limited number of channels.
Stress Curve
B C
Functioning
A D
Stress
Relationship between work demands
and potentials
 Mental workload is considered to be the

relationship between the imposed demands of a
task and the availability of channel capacity to
meet those demands.
Mental Workload
 This may be increased by:

 Stress levels of the operator.
 Task complexity.
 Time constraints.
 Available skills for the task.
 Mental attitude (subjective state of operator).
Obstacles to Proper Perception
 Loss of a sense
 Stress
 Preoccupation with a problem
 Lack of experience/knowledge
 Lack of interest/attitude
 Poor environment: noise, poor lighting,
excessive temperature, heat, humidity
 Lack of proper tools/equipment
A value Judgment
 I perceive things not as they are, but as I

am.
HUMAN FACTORS
Learning and Memory
Definition
“Learning is the acquisition of knowledge or skill through

instruction or experience”
Learning is the storage of information and the human brain

does this using “Short” and “Long” term memory.
HUMAN FACTORS
Short term memory
Last about 20 – 30 seconds
Volatile Memory
HUMAN FACTORS
Long Term Memory
Semantic Memory Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory is said to last longer, whereas Episodic

Memory is said to be more accurate.
HUMAN FACTORS
Short Term Memory Aids
19391914999365
Can you remember the number
19391914999365
HUMAN FACTORS
19391914999365
1939 – Start of WWII.
1914 – Start of WWI.
999 – Emergency number of UK.
365 – Days in the year.

HUMAN FACTORS
Some stimuli will force us to pay attention, but
these will depend on:
• Size and intensity.

• Contrast/change.
• Repetition.
• Movement.
HUMAN FACTORS
Internal Causes of Attention
Selective
Cocktail Party Effect.
Other inputs monitored.

HUMAN FACTORS
Internal Causes of Attention
Divided
Attention divided between 2 or more operations.
Driving a car and talking to a friend.

HUMAN FACTORS
Examples
Selective or Divided
Playing Cards ? Watching TV ?
Stenographer ? TV Presenter ?
Teaching this Class ?

HUMAN FACTORS
Factors affecting Attention
Stress.
Mental Workload.
Perception.
Ambiguity.
Subliminal Perception.
Speech Perception.
HUMAN FACTORS
Stress
Usually increases a person’s arousal and affects the

perception process.
High Stress levels – sampling rate increased but

attention reduced to a limited number of channels.
HUMAN FACTORS
Mental Workload
Increased by:
• Stress levels.
• Task complexity.
• Time constraints.
• Available skills for the task.
• Mental attitude.
HUMAN FACTORS
The Ponzo Illusion
HUMAN FACTORS
Perception
Perception is a complex process involving concepts in

the memory.
If the information is incomplete then the brain will try

and fill in the missing information from memory.
HUMAN FACTORS
HUMAN FACTORS
Information Processing
 Information is key to Error

Prevention
 We receive information about
the external world through
our senses.
 Information is the reduction
of uncertainty
Perception
A
BIRD
IN THE
THE HAND
Amazing
Aoccdrnig to a rscheearchr at Cabrigde Uinervtisy, it
deosn’t mttaer in what order the ltteers ina word are,
the only iprmoetnt thing is that the frist and lsat ltteer
be at the rghit pclae.
The rset can be a total mses and you can sitl raed it
wouthit a porbelm.
This is bcuseae the human mind deos not raed ervey
lteter by istlef, but the word as a whole.
Amzanig huh ?
HUMAN FACTORS
Subliminal Perception.
Might not notice the message at the conscious

level.
HUMAN FACTORS
Speech Perception
Speech or Auditory segmentation is the ability

to separate spoken words in what might
sound like continuous speech.
HUMAN FACTORS
Social Psychology
“If all members of any social group acted alike,

thought alike and felt alike, personality would
not exist”
HUMAN FACTORS
Interaction Between Individuals
When individuals are working towards a

common goal within a team, personalities and
the interaction between them can have an
effect on the outcome.
HUMAN FACTORS
Styles of Interaction
Authoritarian
Paternalistic
Interactive
Submissive
HUMAN FACTORS
Leaders should encourage loyalty to the team

and the company, however the individual
engineer also has a loyalty to the passengers
in the aircraft (Aircraft Safety)
If you feel strongly that something is wrong

within the company then you have a moral
obligation to report it.
The Hierarchy Of Human Needs
3-Factors Affecting Performance
Fitness and Health
To feel fit and healthy humans have basic needs

that must either be supplied or relieved.
Every human is a composite of “Physical,

social, emotional, and intellectual need”
Abraham Maslow
Survival – Air, food, water, heat, rest and pain avoidance.
Stimulation – Sex, activity, exploration, manipulation and

novelty.
Safety – Security and protection.
Love – belonging, closeness and intimacy.

Abraham Maslow-cont.
Esteem – Value and respect from other and oneself.
Self Actualisation – Making the most of ones abilities.
Cognitive needs – Seeking knowledge, understanding, working

with ideas and discovery.
Aesthetic needs – Desire fro beauty and worship.

Effects of Not Satisfying the Needs
 A human will attempt to satisfy all these
needs and will start on the lower hierarchy
first before focusing on the next higher level.
Not meeting these basic needs will result in

physical and mental problems which will affect
the performance at work.
Stress in the Engineering Terms
When a force is applied (Stress) it will produce

a deformation (Strain) in the material of the
structure.
Stress in the Human Terms
 Stress is mental and physical loads on the
body and the strain is the alteration of body
functions.
 The individual perceives the demand and his
ability to cope with the demand and the result
is a stress raiser.
HUMAN FACTORS
Coping with Stress
 Something which is stressful to one individual

may not be so to another.
 How well you cope with the stress will depend
on your arousal state.
HUMAN FACTORS
Levels of Arousal
LOW AROUSAL In this state the individual is not expecting any difficult
tasks to perform. Motivation is low and processing of information can be
very low. The attention is generally dull. Performance capability is low
because it might not matter too much if anything does not get done.
OPTIMAL AROUSAL At optimal arousal we are at our most efficient. We

have enough demands to keep our attention and to be alert. We have the
capability to deal with complex tasks.
HIGH AROUSAL In this state our performance starts to deteriorate, errors

are made and information may be missed. We may feel we are being
overloaded with tasks and suffering from a narrowing of attention as we
tend to focus on a limited number of tasks. We may become emotionally
disturbed.
The Autonomic Nervous System
 The arousal mechanism operates through the
autonomic nervous system, which controls the
body’s vital functions.
 This system is divided into the Sympathetic

and Parasympathetic.
Sympathetic and the arousal system
Provides the body with the resource to cope

with new and sudden source of stress,
possibly to fight or run away.
Prepares us for the physical activity of survival.

Parasympathetic and the Arousal System
The system restores the body to normal

functioning when the stress has abated.
Physical Responses To Stress
• Pupils dilate.
• Flow of saliva is inhibited.
• Heartbeat will increase.
• Bronchi in the lungs will dilate.
• Adrenalin will be secreted.
• Glycogen will be released.
Effect Of Noise On Performance
 In low arousal states some noise can improve
performance towards the optimum,
preventing boredom and fatigue.
 Excessive noise will disrupt performance and
will cause annoyance and irritability. The
heart rate might go up.
 Loss of attention and focusing of attention
can also occur.
Effect Of Vibration On Performance
VIBRATION at various frequencies and intensity can
have effects on the human beings vision and motor
performance.
1 to 4 Hz Interferes with breathing

4 to 10 Hz Can cause chest and abdominal pains
8 to 12 Hz Will cause back ache
10 to 20 Hz Causes headache, eyestrain, pains in the
throat, speech difficulties and muscular tensions.
Perhaps this is why helicopter flight is
tiring and stressful.
Effect Of Temperature On Performance
 A comfortable temperature for most people in

normal clothing is 20C.
 Above 30C the heart rate, blood pressure and
sweating increases. Attention becomes restricted or
focused.
 Below 15C the individual becomes uncomfortable
and falling temperatures may cause some loss of
feeling and some control in the hands, especially for
fine muscle movement and control.
HUMAN FACTORS
 Death of spouse or partner 100
 Divorce 73
 Marital separation 65
 Death of close family member 63
 Personal injury or illness 53
 Marriage 50
 Loss of job 47
 Marital reconciliation 45
 Retirement 45
 Change in health of family member 44
 Pregnancy 40
 Sexual problems 39
 Addition of new family member 39
 Death of close friend 37
 Change to different kind of work 36
 Taking on a large mortgage 31
 Change in responsibilities at work 29
 Son or daughter leaving home 29
 Wife starts/stops work 26
 Starting or leaving a course 26
 Trouble with the boss 23
 Change in residence 20
 Taking on a bank loan or HP debt 17
 Change in eating habits 15
 Vacation 13
 Christmas 12
 Minor violations of law 11
 Scoring:
 Below 60 : a life unusually free of stress
 60 – 80 : normal amount of stress
 80 – 100 : stress in life is rather high
 100 + : under serious amount of stress
Effect Of Humidity On Performance
Low Humidity
Mucous membranes dry out, eyes become sore and tears

evaporate rapidly.
High Humidity
Body increases sweating in an attempt to cool down, feels

uncomfortable and difficult to carry out physical work.
HUMAN FACTORS
Domestic Stress.
Work Stress.
Organisational Stress.
Effect of stress
PHYSIOLOGICAL  COGNITIVE (Thought SUBJECTIVE (Feeling)

Process)
Increased blood sugar Anxiety
levels  Aggression
Inability to determine priorities
Increased heart rate Apathy
 and to make decisions
High blood pressure Boredom
Dryness of mouth  Lack of concentration Depression
Sweating Dilation of  Forgetfulness Fatigue
pupils  Hypersensitivity to criticism Frustration
Difficulty in breathing  Guilt/shame
Mental blocks
Hot/cold spells Irritability/bad temper
A ‘lump in the throat’  Difficulty in switching off Low self-esteem
Numbness Moodiness
Tingling in the limbs Threat/tension
Nervousness
Loneliness
Effect of stress on organization
 Absenteeism
 Poor industrial relations
 Poor productivity
 High accident rate
 High labour turnover
 Poor organisational climate
 Antagonism at work
 Job dissatisfaction
Effect of stress on feelings
 Tenseness
 Explosive changes in mood
 Impulsiveness
 Frustration over failure to get results
 Anger, irritability, bitterness, resentment
 Self-condemnation and guilt
 Unease, panic feeling, general anxiety
 Hopelessness and sadness
Effect of stress on health
 Asthma
 Coronary heart disease
 Ulcers
 Nausea
 Chest/back pains
 Diarrhoea/constipation
 Faintness/dizziness
 Dyspepsia (indigestion/colic)
 Skin rashes
 Frequent urination
 Headaches/migraines
 Neuroses
 Insomnia
Psychosomatic disorders
resulting from stress
 Diabetes
 Loss of sexual interest
 Weakness
 Phobias (exaggerated fears)
 Hypertension (high blood pressure)
 Hair loss
 Cancer
 Allergies
 Sleep disorders
 Skin disorders
 Sexual disorders
 Common cold and flu
Time Pressure and Deadlines
“What happens is not as important as how you

react to what happens”
Stress arises from an imbalance between:
Perceived capability and perceived demand

A Pessimist?
“A pessimist is one who makes difficulties of his

opportunities, whilst an optimist is one who
makes opportunities of his difficulties”
Harry S Trueman
US President
Workloads
Responsibility.
Expectations.
Work content.
Work hours.
Personal situation.
Sleep and Fatigue
Sleep is essential around 8 hours for the

average person.
Recuperates the body from the physical
effort and mental strain of the day.
Has a particular cycle and depends on
internal body rhythm but can be affected
by outside influences.
Biological Clock
Circadian Rhythm – from the Latin Circa (about) and Dies

(day).
Locked into 24 hour cycle, clues taken from light and darkness
or mealtimes.
Biggest clue using clock time.
Outside events can help i.e. increase in traffic noise.

(Zeitgebers)
Body Temperature
Highest around 1800 hrs, lowest around 0500 hrs.

Sleep Credit/Debit
8 hrs sleep (credit) allows 16 hrs active (debit).
Sleep can not be stored in anticipation.
Sleep is more refreshing when body temperature is

falling approx’ between 2100 and 0500 hrs.
Shift Work and Sleep Deprivation
 2 Hours deficit of sleep equal to drinking 1

pint of beer.
 4 hours equal to 2 pints of beer and would

impair the body enough that it would be
dangerous to drive.
Sleep Phases
Each cycle of sleep lasts about 90 – 120 mins

dependant on individual.
Within one cycle there are usually 5 stages.

HUMAN FACTORS
Sleep Phases.
Stage 1 and 2 – Transitional phase.
Stage 3 and 4 – Light to deep sleep.
Stage 5 – Rapid Eye Movement (REM).

HUMAN FACTORS
Duration of sleep phases
Average person sleeps for each cycle

approximately 90 – 120 mins.
Stage 1 – 10 mins.
Stage 2 – 15 mins.
Later stages – 90 mins including REM Sleep.

Duration of sleep phases
1st REM sleep lasts about 10 -20 mins.
Pass back into Slow wave sleep.
After 2nd cycle there is usually no more slow wave sleep.
50% of sleep pattern taken at the stage 2 level.
Sleep pattern may vary according to individual activities.

Slow wave vs. REM sleep
Slow wave sleep is believed to be necessary for
tissue restoration.
REM Sleep required for the organising of the

mind and memory.
After a period of learning it has been noted that

an increase of REM sleep took place.
NAPS
NAPS
A short period of sleep taken at any time of the day

can help with sleep credit/debit but it depends on the
individual and the sleep stages he passes through.
After awakening from a nap the responses and
reactions will be slower for approximately 5
minutes. Habitual nappers seem to gain more
benefit than non-habitual nappers, when it lasts for
at least 10 minutes or more.
Aids To Sleep
Make sure bed is comfortable.
No daylight, air conditioning.
Avoid high caffeine drinks.
Avoid mental stimulation.
Warm milky drinks and light reading.
Alcohol – if used in moderation induces sleep but REM sleep will be reduced and
early waking is likely.
Drugs – May be used to aid sleep by breaking insomnia.

Sleep Disorders
Narcolepsy:
An inability to stop falling asleep even when in sleep
credit. This condition is clearly undesirable as the
sufferer may go to sleep even in a dangerous
situation.
Sleep Disorders.
Apnoea:
A cessation of breathing whilst asleep. This is a
common condition and the subject will normally
either wake up or restart breathing after a short
time. It becomes a more serious problem when the
breathing stoppage lasts for up to a minute and the
frequency of stoppages increases. The frequent
wakening will disturb the normal sleep pattern and
the individual may experience excessive daytime
sleepiness.
Sleep Disorders.
Sleepwalking (Somnambulism):
This condition, as well as talking in one’s sleep, is
commoner in childhood, but does occur later in life.
It may occur more frequently in those operating
irregular hours or those under some stress. The
condition should not cause difficulty in healthy
adults unless the sleep walker is involved in an
accident whilst away from his bed.
Sleep Disorders.
Insomnia:
 CLINICAL INSOMNIA – where the individual is unable to

sleep at a time when they should be asleep. The condition is
often overestimated by the sufferer as there is no absolute
required quantity of sleep.
 SITUATIONAL INSOMNIA - where there is an inability to

sleep due to disrupted work/rest patterns or circadian
disrhythmia.
HUMAN FACTORS
Sleep Disorders.
Fatigue:
This, in the medical sense, is not easy to measure. It is

associated with a heavy physical and/or mental workload
together with sleep deprivation and a lack of rest periods.
HUMAN FACTORS
Alcohol
Simple molecule, when taken orally requires no digestion.
Water speeds up absorption whilst foods high in protein slow

the rate of absorption.
Alcohol is a sedative – hypnotic drug, and can have a damaging

effect on the human body.
HUMAN FACTORS
When a person becomes dependant on this drug we say he is an
alcoholic. The removal/withdrawal of alcohol from this
individual results in psychomotor agitation. The earliest and
most common signs of withdrawal are:
 Anxiety
 Anorexia
 Insomnia
 Tremors
The alcoholic may at times appear hyper alert, irritable, easily

startled and manifest jerky movements. Withdrawal may
also lead to disorientation and hallucinations which can
induce fear in some people.
HUMAN FACTORS
Tolerance
A male weighing 150 lb (68.2kg) metabolises alcohol at the rate

of approximately one drink per hour. A drink being 25
millilitres of pure alcohol provided by the following:
 One measure of spirits (30 ml of 40-50% alcohol by volume)
 A glass of wine (150 ml of 12% alcohol by volume)
 A pint of beer (400 ml of 5% alcohol by volume)

HUMAN FACTORS
Early Signs Of Alcoholism
 Constant drinking for relief of tension and anxiety (possibly brought on

by stress).
 Psychological dependence.
 Onset of memory blackouts.
 Surreptitious drinking.
 Urgent need to drink.
 Increased tolerance to increasing amounts of alcohol.

HUMAN FACTORS
Later Signs of Alcoholism
 Inability to stop drinking.
 Loss of outside interest.
 Work and money troubles.
 Neglect of food.
 Personal relationship difficulties.
 Feelings of guilt, remorse and depression.
 Loneliness.
HUMAN FACTORS
Drugs
Drugs may be taken for medical reasons and may be prescribed by a doctor or purchased from
a pharmacy.
Drugs today are taken by some people for recreational purposes, which were not prescribed or
bought over the counter for their prescribed use.
Certain personality features have been identified that seem to be characteristic of addicts:
 Emotional immaturity.
 A strong wish to turn one’s back on reality.
 A low frustration tolerance.
 Unwillingness or inability to endure or cope with tension.
 A lack of staying power.

HUMAN FACTORS
If the effects are unknown for any prescribed drug seek expert medical
advice before their use.
 Sleeping Tablets
 Tranquillisers.
 Antibiotics.
 Anti-Histamine.
 Pep Pills.
 High Blood Pressure (Hypertension).
 Anti Malaria Pills.
 Oral Contraception Pills.
 Sudafed.
 Herbal Remedies.
HUMAN FACTORS
Licensed aircraft maintenance engineers personal
responsibility when medically unfit or under the
influence of drink and/or drugs.
In the UK the ANO (Air Navigation Order) and AWN

(Air Worthiness Notice) 47 specify your
responsibilities in this area.
It is now a legal requirement to monitor your own

fitness for work.
HUMAN FACTORS
Drinking problems or the use of illicit or non-
prescribed drugs are unacceptable where
aircraft maintenance safety is concerned and
once identified will lead to suspension of the
licence or company authorisation and possibly
further licensing action being considered
AWN 47 (Airworthiness Notice 47).
HUMAN FACTORS
Physical Environment
Heating.
For indoor work the temperature should be

between 16C to 21C for Non Physical
Work, but a minimum of 13C is allowed for
Manual Work.
HUMAN FACTORS
Heating.
HUMAN FACTORS
Lighting.
Every workplace should have suitable and sufficient lighting and shall be, as
far as is reasonably practicable, by natural light.
 Facility Lighting covers ordinary hangar and workshop fixed lighting

systems. It should be evenly distributed without dazzling and causing
any annoying glare.
 Task Lighting is specialist lighting, fixed or adjustable or even portable

and is used to give better illumination at a particular task.
 Intensity of light is measured in candela (SI system) or lux. As an

example an exit sign is about 50 lux, and for fine bench work 5000 lux
units of light would be required.
HUMAN FACTORS
Lighting.
If lighting levels and the type of artificial light are

incorrect the colour of an object can change
compared to Natural Light.
This is known as Colour Rendition. The colour of an

object depends on the colour of the light falling on it.
Natural light is the best light for good colour rendition.

HUMAN FACTORS
Ventilation.
Most hangars and workshops have good ventilation, (hangars

are draughty places anyway) and air quality is not such a
problem.
If we are working in an enclosed workplace, it should be

ventilated with fresh air at a rate of, at least, 5 to 8 litres per
second, per occupant.
When carrying out any some operations, special precautions

must be taken.
HUMAN FACTORS
Care must be taken when working in enclosed spaces
with ground equipment powered by internal
combustion engines for the possible build up of
DANGEROUS CARBON MONOXIDE gases.
PERSONAL BREATHING MASKS/ HOODS

SHOULD BE WORN TO ENSURE A CLEAN AIR
SUPPLY AND PREVENT DAMAGE TO THE
LUNGS!
HUMAN FACTORS
Symptoms of poisoning by carbon monoxide are:-
 Nausea.
 Headaches.
 Vomiting leading to unconsciousness.
 Death, depending on the concentration and time

exposed.
HUMAN FACTORS
Vibration
Many engineers will never suffer this as a problem because they do not work for long
periods with equipment/machinery that vibrates to any great extent. Hand Arm
Vibration Syndrome (HAVS) is the name given to a group of diseases of which the
most widely known is VIBRATION WHITE FINGER.
Methods of reducing vibration induced problems include:
 Reducing the exposure time of the operator.
 Manufacturing equipment so that frequencies are outside the critical range.
 Reducing the amplitude of the vibration by increasing the weight of the tool or reducing the force of the
forcing function.
 Providing damping material between the object/tool and the operative.

HUMAN FACTORS
Workspace.
Workrooms should have enough free space to

allow people to get to and from work stations
and to move within the room with ease.
The minimum workspace is 11 cubic metres per

person.
HUMAN FACTORS
Ergonomics is the study of the relationship between workers and their environment.
Ergonomics should mean ‘fitting the task to the man’ rather than ‘fitting the man to the
task’.
The skills of an ergonomist include:
 Anthropometry.
 Physiology.
 Psychology.
 Engineering.
HUMAN FACTORS
Physical Work
Clothing
Body Posture - For filing/machinery work the work

piece should be 5cm lower than elbow height. When
carrying out visual inspections the work piece
should be between elbow height and 25cm above.
Remember that the duckboard is there when moving

to and from the workstation.
HUMAN FACTORS
Kneeling – Use Kneepads or suitable materials.
Lying – Crawler boards and cushions.

HUMAN FACTORS
Body Movements.
Lifting and Carrying:
• Always try to avoid

strain.
• Get some assistance.

HUMAN FACTORS
Working at Height – On certain aircraft types, often due to
their physical size, we require equipment such as:
 Ladders.
 Adjustable work platforms.
 Aircraft docking systems.
 Safety harnesses.
HUMAN FACTORS
When using height adjustable work platforms, the following precautions should be observed:
 Steady feet in position before raising – if fitted.
 Never overload the platform. safe working load (SWL) will be indicated on the side of the
platform.
 Never overbalance the platform – load evenly, distributed on top.
 Always ensure guardrails are in position.
 When raising/lowering, ensure personnel and aircraft structures are clear.
 Protect structure from platform damage using fender cushions (rubber protective fenders).
 Keep gap between structure and platform as narrow as possible.
 Use safety locks when raised into position.

HUMAN FACTORS
Guardrails around working platforms should be
approximately waist height with a low level screen to
prevent small objects, sockets etc. from falling off.
If you suffer from acrophobia (fear of heights) you

should only work at a height at which you feel
comfortable.
If you suffer from claustrophobia (fear of enclosed

spaces) you should not be expected to undertake this
kind of work.
HUMAN FACTORS
Repetitive Tasks
Tasks are normally classed as repetitive if the

task duration is comparatively short and task
frequency is high.
Larger tasks on aircraft can become repetitive.

HUMAN FACTORS
What can you do ?
Take regular breaks.
Try and break the pattern by a different task.
Change position.
Check the manuals to ensure correct maintenance.
Move personnel within the team around.

HUMAN FACTORS
Visual Inspections
Mk I and Mk II eye ball.
Magnifying glass.
Mirrors.
Boroscopes.
Fibre Optics.
Video cameras.
Colour Television Monitors.
Be careful of PARALLLAX ERROR.

HUMAN FACTORS
Communication Within and Between the Team
Downward communication from the accountable

manager to the engineer.
Upward communication is equally important.
Downward communication is usually ‘directives’ to

produce actions by subordinates. Upward
communications are usually non directive.
HUMAN FACTORS
Communication Problems
Exercise
HUMAN FACTORS
If the message is straight forward and simple,

and the other person is easily reached, then
you may prefer to do it personally.
Written messages.
HUMAN FACTORS
Non Verbal Communication
Eye contact, facial expressions, body

orientation and head movements all
communicate without speaking.
Touch, except for a handshake is not welcome

in Western society.
HUMAN FACTORS
Work Logging and Recording.
Don’t do it your way do it the correct way.
Do not rely on your memory.
Don’t assume check.
Updating – If the correct information can not be found

then work on the aircraft is to be suspended.
HUMAN FACTORS
Dissemination of Information.
Confidential Human Factors Incident Reporting

Programme (CHIRP).
The idea of the CHIRP Trust is to publicise

details of the incidents in the hope that, if
people are made aware of the pre-knowledge
might help prevent a further occurrence.
HUMAN FACTORS
 Error Theories and Models,

 . . . staying safe . . .
HUMAN FACTORS
Why do we study Human Factors?
CAA, 2002: “in the last 10 years, the annual average

(of maintenance related incidents) has increased
more than 100% while the number of flights has
increased by less than 55%”
Being aware of actions/ non actions that can lead to an

accident . . .
HUMAN ERROR MODELS AND
THEORIES
There are many models in the aviation industry that

seek to improve the safety culture.
Human Error Models and Theories aid the

understanding of Human Factors.
If we can understand the reasons why accidents

happen – surely we can work towards avoiding
them?
HUMAN ERROR MODELS AND
THEORIES
James Reasons Model of Active and Latent

Errors
Gordon Dupont’s Theory of the Dirty Dozen

JAMES REASON’S MODEL OF
ACCIDENT CAUSES
 Every level of management and every department
can play its part in accident preventing.
 Each department can be seen as being a barrier
with the ability to prevent accident opportunities
slipping through.
 Unfortunately, the barrier occasionally fails and
the opportunity slips through a hole formed in the
barrier.
James Reason’s Error Model
 If the next layer is working effectively, then it will
stop the accident opportunity from going any
further.
 Sometimes, this level will also have a hole in it,
allowing the accident opportunity to continue on
 If this situation continues throughout every layer in
the organisation, the accident opportunity will be
allowed through all the holes in the barrier and
cause an accident.
 It only takes one of the layers to ‘mis-align’ the
hole in the barrier for the accident opportunity to
be stopped.
JAMES REASONS MODEL OF
ACTIVE AND LATENT FAILURES
(1990)
Latent Failure:
 A failure/ accident waiting to happen.
 a wrong decision by line management.
 a wrong dimension on a drawing by a designer/ decision

maker.
 Dormant: error occurs at a different time and place from the

accident.
JAMES REASONS MODEL OF
ACTIVE AND LATENT FAILURES
(1990)
Active failures:
 Errors at the sharp end.
 Immediate adverse effect.
 Front Line Operators: Pilots/ Engineers.
 Breaches all the defences and results in an accident.

JAMES REASONS MODEL
5 Basic Elements
 Decision Makers.
 Line Management.
 (Psychological) Preconditions.
 Productive Activities.
 Defences.
JAMES REASON MODEL
“Swiss Cheese Effect”
Each of the five layers has

the potential of causing
or preventing an
accident.
If the error goes

unchecked at each level,
an accident will occur.
JAMES REASONS MODEL
 Decisions by
management/
manufacturer.
 Line Management
deficiencies/ planning/
communication.
 Psychological reasons/
unsafe behaviour/
fatigue.
JAMES REASONS MODEL
 Productive Activities/ doing
the job/ shortcuts.
 Inadequate defences;
nothing to prevent the
accident from happening.
 ACCIDENT!!!
 Limited windows of
opportunity.
GORDON DUPONT’S DIRTY
DOZEN
 Builds on all areas of Human Factors.
 Is the core of the Psychological Preconditions

in James Reasons Model.
 Concentrates on 12 main factors of the

human condition that could cause an accident
...
DOZEN
Lack of
Communication
DOZEN
Complacency
DOZEN
Lack of
Knowledge
DOZEN
Distraction
DOZEN
Lack of
Teamwork
DOZEN
Fatigue
DOZEN
Lack of Resources
DOZEN
Pressure
DOZEN
Lack of
Assertiveness
DOZEN
Stress
DOZEN
Lack of
Awareness
DOZEN
Norms
DOZEN
Lack of Complacency Lack of Distractions
Communication Knowledge
Lack of Fatigue Lack of Pressure

Teamwork Resources
Lack of Stress Norm Lack of

Assertiveness Awareness
HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
 Recognising and Avoiding Hazards.
 Basic Safety Points.
- learn the safe way.
- if you don’t know . . . Ask.
- CHECK THE MANUAL!!
- watch out for actions of others, as well as your own.

HUMAN FACTORS
EXERCISE
DOZEN
ACTIVITY!
Split into four groups, each group to take three

of the Dirty Dozen and think of a workplace
scenario that may involve all three.
What ‘safety nets’ could be put in place to

prevent each of the Dirty Dozen that you
have?
DOZEN
Group One
- Lack of Communication, Complacency and Lack of Knowledge.
Group Two
– Distractions, Lack of Teamwork and Fatigue.
Group Three
- Lack of Resources, Pressure and Lack of Assertiveness.
Group Four
– Stress, Norms, and Lack of Awareness.

HUMAN FACTORS
TYPES OF ERROR IN MAINTENANCE TASKS
 Crew & Human Factors.

 Design Related.
 Regulatory Oversight.
 Company Management.
 Failure to Maintain Safe Separation.
 Freight, Ferry & Positioning Flights.
 Occupant Survivability.
 Incorrect/Inadequate Procedures.
 Non JAA/FAA Operator Safety.
 Failure to Adopt/Fit Best Available Technology.
HUMAN FACTORS
IMPLICATIONS OF ERRORS
 Insurance deductibles
 Insurance premiums
 Loss of use of the aircraft and equipment
 The cost of the accident investigation
 Disruption to the Schedules
 Disruption to Servicing and Maintenance
 The hire and training of new personnel
HUMAN FACTORS
AVOIDING AND MANAGING ERRORS
 Safer Aircraft Designs

 System and Structural Redundancy
 Improved Working Practices
 Introducing Quality Assurance
 Better Training of the Staff
 Improved Support Systems for the Aircrew and
Engineers
 Improved National and International Regulations
HUMAN FACTORS
HUMAN FACTORS
Proactive Measures
 Identify the hazard

 Identify the threats that could release the hazard
 Identification of the threat controls. (Measures that are
taken that the threat cannot release the hazard
 Identification of the escalation factors. (Conditions that
prevent the threat controls from being effective
 Assessment of the escalation controls. Further measures
needed to maintain control
 Identification of the hazardous event. The initial release of
the hazard
HUMAN FACTORS
REACTIVE MEASURES
 Assessment of the recovery measures that would return the

situation to normal
 Identification of the escalation factors that could prevent
recovery action from being effective
 Identification of the escalation controls. What further
measures are needed to maintain control of the escalation
factor
 Assessment of the consequences that may occur if control
fails
 Damage limitation to reduce/minimise the effect of the
consequences upon the company
HUMAN FACTORS
DVD
TO KILL A WHOPPING BIRD

 Basic Safety Points:
- Practice good house keeping: tidy workspace/ bench/ tidy

hangar floor.
- In case of emergency: Know your exits!
- Know who the first-aider is.
- Log all accidents.
- If you see a potential hazard – make it safe – and make other

people aware.
 Basic Safety Points:
 Sharp edges cut: sheet metal/ locking wire.
 Hot things burn: soldering irons/ heat guns.
 Acids and solvents: are harmful.
 Powered Surfaces: trap fingers/ clothing.
 Electricity: shock.
 Heavy equipment: dropped/ fall/ posture.

Whether in the hangar or
factory at a work-
station or working on
the ramp; the aviation
industry is a dangerous
place.
BE AWARE OF YOUR
ENVIRONMENT!
THE FIRST OBJECTIVE IN ANY EMERGENCY IS
TO PREVENT LOSS OF LIFE, FURTHER
INJURY TO A VICTIM, OR INJURY TO OTHER
PERSONNEL.
THE TRAINING CENTRE

Safety is based largely on the rule ‘A place for
everything and everything in its place’. This is not a
finicky request, but GOOD COMMON SENSE!
HAND TOOLS
HORSEPLAY
ELECTRICITY
GENERAL WORKSHOP SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
 Wear overalls buttoned up and sleeves buttoned at the wrist. Overalls MUST be in
good repair.
 Do NOT wear loose clothing such as scarves and ties as they can catch in machinery,
this also includes loose bandages.
 Do NOT wear rings, watches or necklaces.
 Hair must be short or covered with a cap.
 Wear strong boots or shoes preferably with strengthened toe caps. Trainers and the
like must not be worn.
 Rub barrier cream into the hands before starting work and wash hands with cleaning
gel on completion. This will help prevent skin diseases. Never use abrasive powders or
solvents.
 Do NOT run in the workshop.
 Do NOT shout, except in an emergency.
 Keep workshop tidy.
 Return tools to their stowage after use, do not leave them lying around on the benches.
 Mop up any spilt water, oil, etc. You could slip on it.
 Keep all gangways clear.
 Do NOT skylark or play around in the workshop.
REMEMBER!!
ACCIDENTS DO NOT HAPPEN,
THEY ARE CAUSED!
TASKS
 The type of physical work that a person can be
asked to undertake and the effect that repetitive
tasks can have on their performance.
 The limitation of people when asked to carry out

visual inspections and the limitations that can be
expected of them when carrying out complex tasks.
TASKS
 Tasks: The nature of the task and considerations.
 Repetitive Tasks: Dangers and making it safe.
 Visual Inspections: The physical environment and

reducing errors.
 Complex Systems: What is a complex system and

what does legislation say?
TASKS
 Range of tasks
– Visual Inspections.
– Connecting Seats.
– Fitting Batteries.
– Changing Tail Lights.
– Removing Aerials.
– Securing Lengthy Overhead Looms.
– Rivets.
CONSIDERATIONS
 Location of Task.
 Weight of Equipment.
 Body Posture.
 Tools required.
 Clothing.
REPETITIVE TASKS
“Tasks are normally classed as repetitive if the task duration is

comparatively short and the task frequency is high. It is also
related to how often a task is performed.”
 Connecting Passenger Entertainment.
 Fitting many rivets.
Always being allocated the same task, on the same a/c type.
REPETITIVE TASKS: DANGERS
 Boredom.
 Wandering mind.
 Not recognising faults.
 Making mistakes.
REPETITIVE TASKS:
MAKING IT SAFE
 Consider the task in hand.
 Take regular short breaks.
 Break the pattern – is there something else you can do?
 Physically shift position.
 Check the manual!

VISUAL INSPECTIONS
“The process of inspection, using our eyes,

supported by visual aids and backed up by test
equipment is the process by which we check the
airworthiness of an aircraft cables and
equipment.”
VISUAL INSPECTIONS:
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
 Lighting.
 Heating.
 Ventilation.
 Low noise/ distraction.
 Access.
 Parallax error.
 Blind Spot.
VISUAL INSPECTIONS:
REDUCING ERRORS
 Magnifying Glass.
 Mirrors.
 Boroscopes.
 Cameras.
 Monitors.
COMPLEX SYSTEMS
“A systems which combines both mechanical and
electronic features”
 DADC
Digital Air Data Computer.
 FADEC
Full Authority Engine Control Computer.
 Mechanical and Avionic Engineers

Responsibilities, Licence and Approval, Knowledge of other systems.
COMPLEX SYSTEM:
LEGISLATION
 CAA: Civil Airworthiness Authority..
 CAP: Civil Aviation Publication.
 AWN: Airworthiness Notices.
 ANO: Air Navigation Order.
 JAR: Joint Airworthiness Notices.
 CRS: Certificate of Release to Service.

COMPLEX SYSTEMS:
LEGISLATION
 AWN 3 &12 note the certification

responsibilities of aircraft engineers.
 AWN 3: specifies areas of trade responsibilities

and the need for good handovers.
COMPLEX SYSTEMS:
LEGISLATION
Handover/ Debriefing:
 Job Cards signed and up to date.
 Verbal progress of the job to date.
 Potential problems.
 Situation; Job/ Spares.
 ECD: Expected completion date.
 Contacts.
COMPLEX SYSTEMS:
LEGISLATION
CRS: Certificate of Release to Service.
 Each trade signs to say that the jobs have

been completed correctly, inspected – and if
required duplicate inspections have been
carried out - and that the aircraft is fit to be
dispatched.
HUMAN FACTORS
Question Time
SAFETY
MANAGEMENT
AWARDS
2006
10th place
The Porter
9th place
Baggage handling at Airport

8th place
Air conditioning Installation

7th place
Automobile Mechanic
6th place
Fork Lift Lift

5th place
Cable Fixing
4th place
Basement Painting
3rd place
Aeronautical Engineer
2nd place
Electrician
Notice the bare feet. Better continuity
And the First
Prize …
Street Light fixing
And this one won an
extra prize
Military Service in North Korea

The DISC Profile
Outgoing/Task Oriented Outgoing Outgoing/ People Oriented
Inspiring, Influencing, Inducing,
Dominant, Direct, Driving,
Impressing, Interactive, Interested
Demanding, Decisive, Doer
in People
D I
Task People
C S
Reserved/ Task Oriented Reserved/ People Oriented
Cautious, Competent, Reserved Steady, Stable, Shy, Security-
Calculating, Compliant, Careful, oriented, Servant, Submissive,
Contemplative Specialist
Dominan
t
Influencer
Steadfast Compliance
DISC Profile
D I S C
DISC Profile
D I S C

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contents

 Need to take HF into account

of our business organization??

In order to achieve its production objectives, the

Managing safety is one such business process.

Safety management is a core business function just as

This brings about a potential dilemma for management.

 Our capacity to perceive what is going on in our

 Genuine safety comes from developing ‘safety

 The Boeing 737 fuselage ripping open.

WORK PLACE NO. OF RATE%

SHOPS 190 2.6

INCIDENT RATE 2004 9.3%

TYPE NO. CASES RATE% DAYS LOST

Work Place Hangar Hangar Shops Shops Stores Stores

 Accidents are related more to the way equipment

Any existing or potential condition in the

“If anything can be done incorrectly then

How many times can it be assembled

How many times can it be assembled correctly

Accidents can occur because of one error or

 If any thing goes wrong, records will show the

 An error is a deviation from standard

 Errors occur even under the best of

 From data analysed by the CAA in 1992, Human Error

Using the correct laid down procedures for

 Physical size & shape

 Non-physical aspects of systems

 Disturbed biological rhythms - Sleep disturbance and

 Perception is the way we react to external

 The condition of the senses

 Seeing is the most important channel of

 Is the light sufficient?

 The cells detect different colours of light;

 The FOVEA only contains Cone cells.

 It is a light sensitive screen lying at the back of the

An area of the retina where it joins the

 Blink a lot, move the eyes frequently, move your

Damage to your eyes can happen

Protect them for life

Should be worn at all times when

Different types available dependant or

 From the base of these hair cells are nerves

 The FREQUENCY of a sound wave gives the

 Mixture of sound waves.

90 Shouting 1 billion fold

 Ear protection should always be worn near

 Young children can hear high pitched noises outside the

 Located between the middle ear and the top of

 If you are going to be in the flight deck when

Mismatch between visual

Lower specific gravity

 The various sections of the brain will perhaps produce motor

 Response to stimuli will depend on the speed of

 This memory is associated with the skill of controlling hand,

 With a little practice each element of the driving

 This is the process whereby the inputs are sampled and

 Mental workload is considered to be the

 This may be increased by:

 I perceive things not as they are, but as I

“Learning is the acquisition of knowledge or skill through

Learning is the storage of information and the human brain