Timeline of Cement

Innovative Training Network

H2020-MSCA-ITN-2017
Cement & concrete are
the most abundant
man-made materials in
the world. 
What is concrete?
What is concrete?
Concrete is a mixture of
 cement
 aggregates
 water
hi
Cement Manufacturing Process
hi
Cement Manufacturing Process

1) Mining raw materials

hi
Cement Manufacturing Process

1) Mining raw materials

• Limestone
• Silica sand
• Shale
• Clay
• Slate
• etc.
hi
Cement Manufacturing Process

1) Mining raw materials

2) Rawmeal preparation
• When the raw materials are
ground, rawmeal is produced
hi
Cement Manufacturing Process

1) Mining raw materials

2) Rawmeal preparation
3) Clinker Production
• Rawmeal is heated in a kiln to sintering temperatures.
• Calcium carbonate decomposes to lime
• Lime reacts with the other available materials to produce silicates,
aluminates, and ferrites, etc.
• These materials are ground to form clinker
99% of all cement is based on Portland Cement.
Main clinker anhydrous phases:
• Alite (C3S)
• Belite (C2S)
• Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A)
• Tetracalcium Alumino-Ferrite (C4AF)

Additional phases:
• Quicklime (CaO)
• Wollastonite (CS)
• Ye’elimite (C4A3$)
• Periclase (MgO)
 20% Clay + 80% Limestone
Clinker is then ground in a ball mill with
Calcination
gypsum and other additives to obtain
1450 °C
different attributes.

Clinker
Gypsum &
Supplementary
+ Grinding
Cementitious
Materials (SCMs)

Cement
Hydration of cement
Clinker Dissolution

With addition of water to cement, clinker is

then dissolved
• Intense release of heat
• Formation of basic pore solution
Clinker Dissolution

Precipitation of hydrates
• New hydrated phases precipitate and
grow in pore space and on clinker grains
• C-S-H
• Portlandite
• Ettringite
• Etc.
Compressive strength of cement phases increases over time!
Strength considerations

Many parameters can affect the final strength

of a cement.
• Water-to-cement ratio
• Cement grain size
• Type of cement
Strength considerations

Flaws can be characterized on

the microscale.

The boundaries between:

• Unhydrated grains and hydrates
• Inner and outer hydrates
• Columnar zones
• Any grain boundary!
Concrete Durability
 Chloride ingress: A durability issue for reinforced concrete
Reinforced concrete = Concrete + Reinforcement steel bars (Rebars)

Chloride ingress is the most common reason for steel to corrode especially when exposed to
moisture atmosphere or exterior chlorides
http://www.civilengineeringforum.me/corrosion-damage-stages-during-service-life/ 20
 How does chloride induce corrosion?

 The alkaline environment of concrete

(pH of 12 to 14) provides steel with
corrosion protection

Chloride ingress is the most common reason for steel to corrode especially when exposed to moisture
atmosphere or exterior chlorides (seawater or deicer salts)

https://www.cement.org/learn/concrete-technology/durability/corrosion-of-embedded-materials 21
21
 How does chloride induce corrosion?

 The alkaline environment of concrete

(pH of 12 to 14) provides steel with
corrosion protection

When chloride reaches a

Chloride ingress is the most common reason for steel to corrode especially when exposed to moisture
concentration threshold nearby the
atmosphere or exterior chlorides (seawater or deicer salts)
rebars, it breaks the protective layer

https://www.cement.org/learn/concrete-technology/durability/corrosion-of-embedded-materials 22
22
 Resistance to sulfate attack

https://www.ctlgroupqatar.com/single-post/2019/06/30/an-overview-on-sulfate-attack 23
 Resistance to Alkali-Silica-Reaction (ASR)

Figueira, R. B., et al. Construction and Building Materials 222 (2019): 903-931. 24

 Resistance to Alkali-Silica-Reaction (ASR)

Figueira, R. B., et al. Construction and Building Materials 222 (2019): 903-931. 25

 Resistance to Alkali-Silica-Reaction (ASR)

Figueira, R. B., et al. Construction and Building Materials 222 (2019): 903-931. 26

Carbonation: A threat for concrete durability

27
Carbonation: A threat for concrete durability

Factors affecting carbonation:

•Pore system of hardened concrete

•Relative humidity
•Concentration of CO2

28
Carbonation: A threat for concrete durability

29
 Mining &
Clinker
production

Hydration
Timeline of Cement & Strength
formation

Concrete
Durability
Thank you!
The research leading to these results has received
funding from European Union Horizon 2020
Research and Innovation Program under the Marie
Skłodowska-Curie Innovative Training Networks
program grant agreement No.764691.