Digital Communication System

• The binary sequence at the output of the channel encoder is passed to digital modulator, which
serve as the interface to the communication channel.

• The primary purpose of the digital modulator is to map the binary sequence into signal wave-
forms.

• At the receiving end of a digital communication system, the digital demodulator processes the
channel-corrupted transmitted waveform and reduces the waveforms to a sequence of
numbers(binary).
Langer and Vacanti, Science (1993)
Modulation

cos(2𝜋 𝑓 𝑐 𝑡)

• The process of mapping a digital sequence to signals for transmission over a communication
channel is called digital modulation

• Digital modulation provides bandwidth efficiency and energy efficiency to the system. Which can
maintain a higher signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) compared to analog signals

• Digital modulation provides error resilience against noise and distortion that may occur during
transmission.

• Digital modulation enables frequency division multiplexing (FDM), which is the simultaneous
transmission of multiple signals over different frequency bands.
Langer and Vacanti, Science (1993)
Type of Digital Modulation

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Pulse Amplitude Modulation

(PAM)

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

- BPSK, QPSK

Quadrature Amplitude Modula-

tion (QAM)
- 16-QAM, 64-QAM, 256-QAM
Pulse Amplitude Modulation

Signal wave form , Signal amplitude , basis

,

For the bandpass PAM

Phase Shift Keying

Signal wave form

,
,
For MPSK
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Signal wave form , Information bearing signal amplitudes of the quadrature carriers ,
MATLAB Assignment

BPSK, QPSK, QAM-16,

QAM-64, QAM-256

AWGN
AWGN channel

• AWGN (Additive White Gaussian Noise) channel is a commonly used model in communication
systems to represent the presence of noise and interference during signal transmission.

• The AWGN channel is fully characterized by its noise power, often denoted as N0 (variance),
which represents the average power of the noise. The power of the noise affects the signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR) and, consequently, the quality of the received signal.
Modulation(Data generation & Binary to Gray)

• The data is an array of random 0s and 1s, and the order of the modulation determines the num-
ber of elements in a symbol.

• The resulting data is in binary code, which we convert to gray code.

Modulation(constellation)

• In the case of QAM-16, the n values that can be put into the expression for 2n-3 are - 0,1,2,3, so
it can have the values -3, -1, 1, and 3, resulting in 16 combinations of I+Qj.
• For QAM-64, the n values that can be put into a 2n-5 expression are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7, and for
QAM-256, the n values that can be put into a 2n-5 expression are
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15.
Modulation(Normalization)

BPSK

QPSK

QAM-16

QAM-64

QAM-256

• To make the average power equal to 1. To make the signal output levels equal, we normalize
and map them.
Demodulation(Normalization)

• We implemented Demodulation as if it were the reverse of what we did with Modulation.

• We took the noisy I and Q, approximated them to the mean, and used the denoised I and Q to
map them to the data corresponding to I and Q in the constellation table.
MATLAB Assignment

• Graphically visualized the biterr of the data before modulation, the data that passed through the
channel, and the data after demodulation.
Received signal with multipath components

- Sum of LOS and resolvable multipath components

- Doppler phase shift (t), amplitude

- path length , delay

- nth component may correspond to single reflector or with multiple reflectors clustered together

- Resolvability condition: if not , ≈

- nonresolvable components are combined(amplitude, phase) into a single multipath component

 Time-Varying Channel Impulse Response

𝑁 (𝑡 )
𝑐 ( 𝜏 , 𝑡 ) = ∑ 𝛼 𝑛 (𝑡 )𝑒
− 𝑗 ∅ 𝑛( 𝑡 )
𝛿 (𝜏 − 𝜏 𝑛 ( 𝑡 ) )
𝑛=0

Ex)
time-varying impulse response corresponding to :

Impulses launched into channel at will be received at

 Wide/narrow band fading model

Channel delay spread: time between first arrival and last reflection
Inverse signal bandwidth: T = 1/B

1. If T > delay spread: non resolvable, narrow band fading model, small inter symbol interference

2. If T < delay spread: resolvable, wide band fading model, big inter symbol interference
 Narrow band fading model

Delay spread and for all i, so

, let

Statistics of
-Distribution : Rayleigh, rician
-Uniform scattering assumption: multipath comes uniformly from all directions
-Power in each component is the same
 Rayleigh fading model

- Model for without dominant path(no LOS)

- For large N, according to central limit theorem follows normal distribution

- real, imaginary part of follows normal distribution => follows Rayleigh distribution

- pdf, cdf, mean, and variance of ( rayleigh pdf: )

 Rician fading model

- Model with dominant path (with LOS)

- Power in LOS :

- Power of scattering :

- K-factor : /

- pdf :

- K=0 : Rayleigh fading , K= : no fading

 PSD/autocorrelation of narrowband

- mobility causes spectral broadening/shifting

- Zero crossing at ) so channel approximately constant for

- faster mobility, shorter coherence time, quicker varying channel

- Higher carrier frequency, shorter coherence time, quicker varying channel

Simplified wideband fading model(WSS-US)

1. is a complex Gaussian process

2. Phases of multipath component are uniform/independent
Þ Statistical characterization is determined by auto correlation function

Þ WSS-US assumption:
(independent of t, uncorrelated with different delay)
 Power delay profile/coherence bandwidth

Power delay profile

- Defined with :
- Represent average power with multipath delay
- Can find average and rms delay spread with it

Fourier transform of autocorrelation function

Þ ,

Coherence bandwidth: The frequency where for all

- Flat fading: when , fading across entire bandwidth is highly correlated
- Frequency selective: when , channel amplitude varies widely across the bandwidth
Doppler power spectrum/channel coherence time

Channel coherence time

- Let
- Channel coherence time : the range of over which is not zero

Doppler power spectrum

- Fourier transform of
- As the Fourier transform of autocorrelation, represents PSD
- Maximum value for which is greater than zero : Doppler spread
- Doppler spread 1 / coherence time
 Diversity and its types

When M independent channels are used, the probability of all channels in deep fade gets lower

- Micro diversity : diversity to mitigate the effect of multipath fading

- Macro diversity : diversity to mitigate the effect of shadowing

- Frequency diversity : transmit the same narrow band signal at different carrier frequencies ()

- Time diversity : transmit the same signal at different time ( >

- Space diversity : use multiple transmit/receive antennas separated in distance

 Receiver diversity system model

- the output of the combiner is just a weighted sum of the different fading paths or branches

- Co-phasing : multiplication with , branch signals add up coherently( no fading )

- Array gain: in absence of fading, M fold increase in SNR,

- Diversity gain: better distribution of received SNR leads to decrease in outage probability and
average probability of error => performance advantage

1. : average combined SNR

2. : average branch SNR
3. : average probability of error
4. : outage probability
 Selection Combining

- Combiner outputs the signal on the branch with highest SNR

- Requires just one receiver that is switched into the active antenna branch

- Since one branch output is used, co-phasing of multiple branches is not required

- Average SNR gain and corresponding array gain increase with M , =

 Maximal ratio combining

- Output is a weighted sum of all branches

- Branches with high SNR should be weighted more than branches with low SNR

- The SNR of the combiner output is the sum of SNRs on each branch

- Average combiner SNR and corresponding array gain increase linearly with M
 Equal-Gain Combining

- Does not require knowledge of time-varying SNR in each branch

- Co-phase the signals on each branch and combine them with equal weighting ,

- Performance is quite close to MRC

 Transmitter Diversity (Channel known)

- Transmit power is divided among multiple transmit antennas

- Depends whether or not complex channel gain is known at transmitter

- With out channel knowledge, combination of space and time diversity (Alamouti scheme)

Channel Known at transmitter

- Received SNR is the sum of individual branches

- If all antennas have the same gain => M-fold increase in SNR
 The Alamouti Scheme
- Scheme for two-antenna transmit diversity

- Scheme works over two symbol periods, assume that each channel gain in constant

- 1st period: two different symbols transmitted from antenna 1,2

- 2nd period: two different symbols transmitted from antenna 1,2

- : complex channel gain for ith transmit antenna

- Received SNR is equal to the sum of SNRs on each branch divided by 2

- Achieves diversity order 2 despite channel knowledge is unknown at receiver

- Achieves array gain of only 1