Thermodynamic Cycles

Presentation by
Dr Peter Kay

Senior Lecturer

2017/18
Learning Objectives
By the end of this lecture you should be able to:
• Describe the operation of Otto, Diesel and Brayton cycles
• Describe the Otto, Diesel and Brayton thermodynamic cycles as a
function of their constituent processes
• Derive the ideal cycle efficiency for a thermodynamic cycle
• Calculate the temperatures and pressures in a thermodynamic cycle
Terminology
• Isobaric
o Process carried out at constant pressure
• Isochoric
o Process carried out at constant volume
• Isothermal
o Process carried out at constant temperature
• Adiabatic Process
o No transfer of heat between system and it’s surroundings
o Energy is only transferred as work
• Isentropic
o Constant entropy
o Reversible Adiabatic process
Terminology
From first year thermodynamics:
• Change in internal energy is:

• Change in enthalpy is:

• For a general polytropic process:

Terminology
𝑉𝐶
• Swept Volume: Bore TDC

𝑉𝑡
• Clearance Volume = 𝑉𝑠 Stroke
• Total Volume =
• Compression Ratio: BDC

• Engine Displacement: TDC

θ
270° 90°

BDC
Crank Angle Degrees (CAD)
Otto Cycle
 Otto Cycle
Gasoline is fast burning,
therefore process is
3 treated as Isochoric
P
Isochoric No heat transfer during
power stroke therefore
Qin Isentropic
2 Instantaneous exhaust
Isentropic t of gases
ou
W

No heat transfer during 4

compression stroke Isentropic Isochoric
in
W

therefore Isentropic Qout

0 1
Isobaric

No net work done during

exhaust and induction stroke
V
 Otto Cycle
3
T Wout
Qin Isentropic

Isochoric
4

2
Win Isentropic Isochoric
Qout

s
Otto Cycle Efficiency
• Thermal Efficiency:

• Show that:

From 1st law:

• Change in internal energy is zero!

• Therefore
Otto Cycle Efficiency
• From previous slide:

• Remembering that the heat required to heat a gas from T 1

to T2 at constant volume is:

• Heat absorbed is related to the temperature:

• Rearranging gives:
Otto Cycle Efficiency
From previous slide the thermal efficiency expressed was:

The process of finding the thermal efficiency can be simplified,

using the following process:
1. Express the thermal efficiency in terms of temperature ratio
2. Write all the processes in terms of temperature ratio
3. Substitute the temperature ratios
Otto Cycle Efficiency
1. Express thermal efficiency in terms of temperature
ratio:

• Recognising that:
 Otto Cycle Efficiency
2. Write all the processes in terms of temperature ratio
• From 1-2 (Isentropic Process):

o Where is the compression ratio.

• From 2-3 (Isochoric Process):

o Where is the pressure ratio.

• From 3-4 (Isentropic Process):
Otto Cycle Efficiency
3. Substitute in temperature ratios
• Substituting:, and .
Efficiency v Compression Ratio
• Graph shows the variation of thermal 80%

efficiency with compression ratio. 70%

• However, Gasoline engine compression
60%
ratio are typically in the range of 8-12.

Ideal Termal Efficiency [%]

• What is limiting the compression ratios of 50%

spark ignition engines? 40%

o Knocking, Pinging, Detonation – All
30%
terms for the explosion of fuel outside
of the normal flame front. 20%

• The Research Octane Number (RON) is a 10%

measure of the fuels knocking
0%
characteristics. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Compression Ratio
Research Octane Number
• The Research Octane Number (RON) is the ratio
of Iso-octane to heptane.
o Iso-octane has a RON of 100
o Heptane has a RON of 0
• Fuel with a RON of 90 has the same knock
characteristics as a mixture of 90% iso-octane
and 10% heptane.
• The table shows the RON of some common pump
fuels
Fuel RON
"Regular unleaded" in Europe 95
“Premium” 98-99
E85 gasoline 102-105
Diesel Cycle
 Diesel Cycle
Isobaric
Diesel is slow burning,
Qin

P 2 3
therefore process is
treated as Isobaric

Wout

Win
Isentropic
4
Isentropic
Qout

0 1 Isochoric
Isobaric

V
Diesel Cycle
3
T Isobaric Wout

Isentropic
2 Qin 4

Win
Isochoric
Isentropic
Qout

s
Diesel Cycle Efficiency
• In a similar manner to the Otto derived efficiency
1. Write all the processes in terms of temperature ratio
2. Express the thermal efficiency in terms of temperature
ratio
3. Substitute the temperature ratios

• It can be shown that:

Brayton Cycle
 Brayton Cycle

Induction Compression Combustion Exhaust

Brayton Cycle
Fuel

Qin
Combustion Combustion
Chamber Chamber

Compress Compress
Turbine Win Turbine Wout
or or

Heat
Air Products Exchanger

Qout
Brayton Cycle
P
Qin
2 3
Isobaric
Isentropic
Win
Wout
Isentropic
4
Qout

1 Isobaric

V
Brayton Cycle
T 3

Isobaric Wout

Qin Isentropic

2
Isentropic Isobaric
Qout

Win

s
Brayton Cycle Efficiency
Similar to the other cycles the thermal efficiency can be
expressed as:

1. Heat absorbed is related to the temperature:

This can be simplified, using the following process:

2. Express the thermal efficiency in terms of temperature ratio
3. Write all the processes in terms of temperature ratio
4. Substitute the temperature ratios
Brayton Cycle Efficiency
1. Express thermal efficiency in terms of temperature
ratio:

• Recognising that:
Brayton Cycle Efficiency
2. Write all the processes in terms of temperature ratio
• From 1-2 (Isentropic Process):

o Where is the pressure ratio.

• From 2-3 (Isobaric Process):

o Where is the volume ratio.

• From 3-4 (Isentropic Process):
Brayton Cycle Efficiency
3. Substitute in temperature ratios
• Substituting:, and .
 Efficiency v Pressure Ratio
80% 70

70% 60

60%
Ideal Thermal Efficiency [-]

Overall Pressure Ratio [-]

50
50%
40
40%
30
30%
20
20%
10
10%

0% 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Pressure ratio [-] Year [-]

Ideal vs Real Cycles
 Ideal v Real Finite combustion time means
that peak pressure is lower as
occurs after TDC

3 P
P Heat Transfer during
3 expansion results fall
below isentropic line
Heat Transfer during
combustion results in Incomplete combustion mean
lower pressure about a 5% loss in available
2 chemical energy

4 2 Exhaust valve opened

before BDC gas pressure
Crevice effects and drops below isentropic line
leakage mean a
0 1 reduced pressure 4
0
1
Work done during expansion
and induction strokes
v (pumping losses) V
 Work per cycle
• The net indicated work per cycle is work delivered to
piston over whole cycle (red and blue):

• The gross indicated work per cycle is the work delivered

to piston over expansion and compression only (red):

• The pumping work is the work between the piston and

cylinder gases during inlet and exhaust (blue):
 Brake Power
• Not all the power produced by the cylinder is delivered
to the wheels
• Frictional losses in the system reduce the power Rotor Stator
delivered to the wheels
• The power measures at the output of the engine is F
called the ‘Brake power’.
• Engine Torque is usually measured with a dynamometer. b
o The engine shaft is connected to the rotor
o The rotor is connected electromagnetically, Load
hydraulically or by mechanical friction to the stator. Cell
o The force exerted on the stator, with the rotor
turning, is balanced.
 Brake Power
• Torque exerted by the engine is:

o is the Torque (Nm) Rotor Stator

o is the Force (N)
o F
is the lever arm (m)
• Brake Power is:
b
o is the power (W)
o Load
is the crankshaft rotational speed (rev/s)
Cell
o is the Torque (Nm)
Morse Test
• It is possible to determine the indicated power and frictional losses
using a Morse test
• This is achieved by taking a series of measurements on an engine
dyno (at fixed speed and Throttle position)
o Power is recorded with all cylinders active
o Power is recorded with cylinder 1 inactive
o Power is recorded with cylinder 2 inactive
o Power is recorded with cylinder 3 inactive
o …
o Power is recorded with cylinder N inactive
• It is assumed that the frictional power remains the same if the
cylinder is active or inactive
Morse Test
• The total power from the engine is:

• The power from cylinder is:

• Therefore (for a 4 cylinder engine):

• When each cylinder is deactivated :

• Then for each cylinder :

• Finally (for a 4 cylinder engine):

Isentropic Efficiency
P2
• The operation of a compressor/turbine T 1 4
C T
can be best plotted on a T-S diagram. 3
• An ideal compressor is both adiabatic 2 3
and reversible, therefore isentropic.
• Real processes are, of course, Wt
irreversible and entropy increases. 2
• The efficiency of the compressor is: 2s
P1
4
• The efficiency of the turbine is: Wc 4s

s
Learning Objectives
By the end of this lecture you should be able to:
• Describe the operation of Otto, Diesel and Brayton cycles
• Describe the Otto, Diesel and Brayton thermodynamic cycles as a
function of their constituent processes
• Derive the ideal cycle efficiency for a thermodynamic cycle
• Calculate the temperatures and pressures in a thermodynamic cycle
 Thermodynamic Cycles
Presentation by
Dr Peter Kay

Senior Lecturer

2017/18