Functions of Technology

Management
Leading Technical People
 Managing Engineering and Technology

Management Functions Managing Technology Personal Technology

Planning Research Time Management

Design Ethics
Decision Making
Production Career
Organizing
Quality
Leading
Marketing
Controlling
Project Management
Leadership

Managers Leaders
Administer Innovate
Ask how and when Ask what and why
Focus on systems Focus on people
Do things right Do the right things
Maintain Develop
Short term perspective Longer term perspective
Imitate Originate
Are a copy Are original
--Warren Bennis
Nature of Leadership

Leadership is the process of getting the

cooperation of others in accomplishing a desired
goal.
“mixture of persuasion, compulsion, and
example that makes men do what you want
them to do.” Sir William Slim, commander of
the British Army
 “You know what makes leadership? It is the
ability to get men to do what they don't want
to do and like it.” Harry Truman
Types of Leaders

Formal leaders are appointed branch

manager or committee chair or team captain
and have the advantage of formal authority
(including the power to reward and punish),
but this only gives them the opportunity to
prove themselves effective at leadership.

Emergent, or informal leaders evolve

based on their expertise or referent power as
it is expressed in the process of group activity.
Identifying Potential Leaders

Leadership Traits
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Leadership Traits

 Physical qualities of health, vitality, and

endurance;
 Personal attributes of personal magnetism,
cooperativeness, enthusiasm, ability to inspire,
persuasiveness, forcefulness, and tact;
 Character attributes of integrity, humanism, self-
discipline, stability, and industry; and
 Intellectual qualities of mental capacity, ability to
teach others, and a scientific approach to problems.
Harris had this list of 18 qualities and attributes
evaluated by a group of 176 engineers, mostly
electrical, mechanical, and aerospace engineers
working for high-technology firms.

There were two phases to this research. In the first

phase, 130 engineers, divided into three different
ranges of engineering experience, were asked to
rate each of the 18 characteristics individually as
they perceived their necessity for effective
leadership in the engineering environment.
Harris summarizes his research: “The results quite
clearly show that engineers want and expect
excellent leaders. The results also show that they
are not getting what they want.”
Repeating this research with European engineers
obtained similar results, except that he found
engineers in Europe were even less satisfied with
their managers than were engineers in Texas.
Connolly shows that the development and
acceptance of emergent leaders are facilitated by
social skills, by technical skills in the specific tasks
facing the group, and by being at the hub of a
communication net.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) measures
personal preferences on four scales, each made up of two opposite
preferences:
Engineers and scientists frequently are evaluated as ENTJ or INTJ; successful
engineering managers often are ENTJ; researchers in technical areas (and the
engineering deans who are often chosen from them) are INTJ.

ENTJ Engineering Managers

(Extroversion-Intuition-Thinking-
Judging)

INTJ Scientists, Researchers

(Introversion-Intuition-Thinking-
Judging)

ISFP Worst case,

(Introversion-Sensing-Feeling-Perceiving) non-experienced
professional
https://www.westegg.com/unmaintained/carnegie/win-friends.html
Classification of Leadership Style
I. People/Task Matrix Approaches
 The Leadership Grid
 Michigan and Ohio State Studies
 Hersey and Blanchard Life-Cycle Theory
II. Situational Approaches
 Leadership Continuum
 Other Viewpoints
 The Leadership Grid

(1,9) Country Club (9,9) Team Management, in

Management which individual objectives
are achieved in the process
Concern for People

of achieving organizational
goals

(5,5) Middle of the Road

Management

(9,1) Authority
(1,1) Impoverished Compliance Management
Management
Concern for Production
Ohio State Studies
 Initiating Consideration (C)
Structure (IS) Low High
High H(IS)/L(C) H(IS)/H(C)
Low L(IS)/L(C) L(IS)/H(C)

Findings:
• High IS – High C may not always be most effective
• High IS helps only if task is unstructured.
• High C helps only if there is no adequate alternate
source of satisfaction
 Hersey and Blanchard life-cycle
theory (or
Hersey and Blanchard "maturity"
Life-Cycle theory)
Theory

The most effective leadership progresses with time

through the four quadrants.

High Initiating Structure, Low Consideration
 High Initiating Structure, High Consideration

Low Initiating Structure, High Consideration

Low Initiating Structure, Low Consideration
A life-cycletheory of leadership postulates that a
manager should consider an employee’s
psychological and job maturity before deciding
whether task performance or maintenance
behaviors are more important.
Leader’s effectiveness depends upon curvilinear
relationship among three situational variables:
◦ Task Behaviour: Task related formal instructions
issued by the leader.
◦ Relationship Behaviour: Socio-emotional support
provided by leader.
◦ Maturity of Followers: Readiness level exhibited
by followers in assuming responsibility.
Hersey and Blanchard Leadership Model
the most effective leadership progresses with time through the four quadrants
Situational Approaches
Contingency Theory argues that there is no one right way to manage

The manager must develop a reward system, a leadership

style, or an organizational structure to be appropriate for
the unique combination of such factors as
 the nature of the subordinates,
 the technology of the business and the tasks that
result,
 the rate of change in the organization,
 the degree of integration of functions required,
 the amount of time the manager has to accomplish
the assignment,
 the quality of the manager's relationship with
subordinates.
Leadership Continuum
"a continuum of leadership style extending from complete retention of
power by the manager to complete freedom for subordinates"

 Autocratic ("Telling"). Manager makes decisions with

little or no involvement of non-managers.
 Diplomatic ("Selling”). Manager makes decisions
without consultation but tries to persuade non-
managers to accept them.
 Consultative ("Consulting"). Manager obtains non-
managers' ideas and uses them in decision making.
 Participative ("Joining"). Manager involves non-
managers heavily in the decision (and may even
delegate it to them completely).
Tannenbaum and Schmidt proposed that a manager
should consider three types of forces before deciding
what management style to employ:
 Forces in the manager The manager’s value system regarding leadership
and personal leadership inclinations, confidence in the nonmanagers, and feelings of
security (or “tolerance for ambiguity”) in an uncertain situation.

 Forces in the subordinate (or non-manager). Greater

delegation can be provided when nonmanagers have a need for
independence, are ready to assume responsibility, can tolerate ambiguity, are
interested in the problem, understand and relate to the goals of the
organization, have the necessary knowledge and experience, and have
learned to expect a share in decision making.
 Forces in the situation. The type of organization and the amount
of delegation common in it, the experience and success the nonmanagers
have had in working together as a group, the nature and complexity of the
problem, and the pressure of time.
Situational Theory states that a leader should adapt
his or her leadership style to match the situation.
It considers that a leader should adapt his/her
leadership style to the situation at hand.
Contingency Theory states that the effectiveness of a
leader depends on how his or her leadership style
relates to the situation.
It considers that a leader’s leadership style should
match the right situation.
Servant Leadership
The term servant leadership was coined by Robert
K. Greenleaf, a retired AT&T executive, in his
book, Servant As Leader, published in 1970.
This approach emphasizes the leader’s role as
steward of the resources, including both human and
financial, provided by the organization.
Servant leadership is characterized by the belief that
leadership development is an ongoing, continuously
improving process.
Servant leaders may or may not hold formal
leadership positions.
Unlike other leadership approaches with a top-
down hierarchical style, servant leadership
emphasizes collaboration, trust, empathy, and the
ethical use of power.
Servant leaders:
◦ devote themselves to serving the needs of the
organization members
◦ focus on meeting the needs of those that they
lead
◦ develop employees and facilitate personal growth
◦ coach others and encourage self-expression
◦ listen and build a sense of community.
Other Viewpoints:
Cribbin identified 14 Types of Executives by their Behavior

Merely successful Effective leaders

(Table 7-3) (Table 7-4)
 Bureaucrat  Entrepreneur
 Zealot  Corporateur
 Machiavellian
 Developer
 Missionary
 Craftsman
 Climber
 Integrator
 Exploiter
 Gamesman
 Temporizer
 Glad-Hander
Motivation
 Motive: “An inner state that energizes, activates, or
moves, and that directs or channels behavior toward
goals.” Berelson & Steiner
 Motivation: “The willingness to exert high levels of
effort to reach organizational goals, conditioned by
the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.”
Robbins
 “Three measures of resulting behavior: direction,
strength, and persistence.” Campbell
Nature of the Individuals

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y propose two

assumptions about the average worker

 Theory X places exclusive reliance upon external

control of human behavior, while Theory Y relies
heavily on self-control and self-direction.

 It is worth noting that this difference between

treating people as children and treating them as
adults.
Motivation Theories

Content Theories: Process Theories:

Based on human needs Assumes that behavioral
and people’s effort to choices are based on
satisfy them expected outcomes
 Hierarchy of Needs  Equity Theory (Adams)
(Maslow)  Expectancy Theory
 Two-factor Theory (Vroom)
(Herzberg)  Porter-Lawler
 Trio of Needs Extension
(McClelland)  Behavior Modification
(Skinner)
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
The appearance of one need usually rests upon the prior satisfaction of another.

 Physiological needs: air, water, food, shelter, sex

 Security/safety needs: safe work, with security that
the physiological needs will continue to be met
(through job tenure and medical, unemployment,
and disability insurance and retirement provisions)
 Affiliation/love needs: affectionate relations with
friends, family, and people in general, and group
acceptance
 Esteem needs: self-respect or self-esteem, and the
esteem of others (expressed in reputation, prestige,
and recognition)
 Self-actualization/self-fulfillment needs: the desire to
become everything one is capable of becoming (to
become actualized in what one is potentially)
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
identifies two set of factors that influence job satisfaction.
Herzberg's Two-
Factor Theory
 The growth or motivator factors that are intrinsic to
the job are [in order of decreasing importance]:
achievement, recognition for achievement, the work
itself, responsibility, and growth or advancement.
 The dissatisfaction-avoidance or hygiene factors that
are extrinsic to the job include [also in order of
decreasing importance]: company policy and
administration, supervision, interpersonal
relationships, working conditions, salary, status, and
security.
Applications of Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
 Job enrichment: To increase the content of motivators
in a job.
 Reducing the number and frequency of controls
 Making the worker responsible for checking his/her
own work
 Establishing a direct relationship between worker and
the customer (internal or external)
 Increasing authority and autonomy
McClelland’s Trio of Needs
states that every person has one of three main driving motivators: the
needs for achievement, affiliation, or power.

 Need for achievement: the drive or desire to excel, to

accomplish something better than has been done in
the past. (entrepreneurs)
 Need for power: the desire to control one’s
environment, including resources and people.
(managers)
 Need for affiliation: the need for human
companionship and acceptance. (coordinators,
integrators, counselors, and sales)
Equity Theory of Motivation looks at an individual’s
perceived fairness of an employment situation and finds that
perceived inequalities can lead to changes in behaviour.

Environment

Effort Performance Outcome

Ability Valence of
Outcomes

Effort to Performance to
Performance Outcome
Expectancy Expectancy
Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory
examines more closely the traits and perceptions of the
individual and the nature and impact of rewards on motivation. 

 Personal effort, abilities and traits, and role

perceptions (the employee's belief that certain tasks
need to be done to do his or her job effectively)
determine performance.
 Performance, in turn, leads to intrinsic and extrinsic
rewards, as in the expectancy model.
 The perceived equity (fairness) of these rewards
determines the satisfaction the employee gains from
the work.
 This satisfaction colors the value placed on the
rewards anticipated for future cycles of work, and
therefore it influences future effort.
Behavior Modification
(Reinforcement Theory or Operant Conditioning)
Behavior is followed by an event (reinforcement) that
affects the probability that the behavior is repeated.

Four major types of reinforcement are available to the

managers:
1. Positive reinforcement increases the probability that
desired behavior will be repeated by providing a
reward (praise, recognition, raise, promotion, or
other).
2. Negative reinforcement, or avoidance, seeks to
increase the probability that desired behavior will be
repeated by letting the employee escape from
undesired consequences.
3. Punishment seeks to decrease the probability that
undesired behavior will be repeated by imposing
penalties (undesired consequences) such as
reprimands, discipline, or fines.
4. Extinction seeks to decrease the probability that
undesired behavior will be repeated by ignoring it
and withholding positive reinforcement.
Motivating And Leading Technical
Professionals

General Nature of the Technical Professional

 Having a high need for achievement and deriving
their motivation primarily from the work itself.
 Desiring autonomy (independence) over the
conditions, pace, and content of their work.
 Tending to identify first with their profession and
secondarily with their company.
 Seeking to maintain their expertise, gained through
long and arduous study, and stave off
obsolescence through continuing education.
Motivation Factors for Engineers

1. Type of work, interesting, diversified (45.0%)

2. Salary (33.9%)
3. Location, good place to live, family (31.2%)
4. Opportunity for advancement (29.8%)
5. Challenge, more responsibility, chance to use
creative ability (16.9%)
6. Reputation, prestige of company (13.7%)
7. Working conditions, personnel policies (11.7%)
8. Growing organization, growing field (6.9%)
9. Security, retirement plan, benefits (6.8%)
10. Opportunity to learn, broaden experience, training
programs (6.6%)
Five Strategic Dimensions of Technical
Leadership
 Coach for peak performance
Listen, ask, facilitate, integrate, provide
administrative support
 Run organizational interference.
Obtain resources, act as advocate for the
professional and his or her ideas, and minimize
the demands of the bureaucracy.
 Orchestrate professional development
 Expand individual productivity through teamwork
 Facilitate self-management
Leading as Orchestration
While the supervisor is not the only factor
determining group effectiveness, McCall identifies
four general areas where the leader can make a
difference.
1. Technical competence - related to scientific
productivity and willingness to comply with
management directives
2. Controlled freedom - decision making is shared
but not given away, autonomy partially preserved
3. Leader as metronome - widen/narrow lmits,
add/subtract weights, speed up/slow down actions
4. Work challenge - manager measured by extent to
which he/she can provide challenging assignments
Breakpoint Leadership
◦ When influencing other parts of the
organization is as important, or more important,
than influencing a subordinate group,
leadership is a breakpoint.
◦ Effectiveness is not simply measurable by group
productivity, but as a function of organizational
direction and impact.
◦ For many professionals the first breakpoint
leadership role is that of a project manager.
Use of Motivational Theories by Engineers
◦ Familiar with MBO, quality, Maslow’s hierarchy,
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y, Herzberg’s
two factor theory, the managerial grid
(leadership grid), and Tannenbaum and
Schmidt’s leadership continuum.
◦ Top-level managers were more familiar with
these motivational concepts than were lower-
level managers. Managers at all levels in high-
technology companies were more likely to use
motivational concepts than were managers in
lower-technology companies.