LECTURE NOTES

IN MAGNETIC
RESONANCE IMAGING
 LECTURE NOTES
IN
MAGNETIC
RESONANCE IMAGING
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
Is the integration of the minute magnetic
properties of the tissue atoms with the static
magnetic field, to be in a resonant state with an
applied external Radio-frequency pulse, and will
in turn produce an MR signal that is converted
into an exquisite tissue image.
It is the process by which certain nuclie,
when placed in a magnetic filed can absorb and
release energy in the form of radiowaves.
MRI is a medical diagnostic technique that
creates images of the body using the principles
of “Nuclear Magnetic Resonance”.
 The word :Nuclear” has been disassociated
from MRI because of public apprehension about
Nuclear energy and Nuclear weapons.
MRI is a versatile, powerful and sensitive tool
that can generate thin section images of any part
of the body -including the heart, arteries and
veins from any angle and direction in the body.
MRI is possible in the human body because the
body is filled with small biological magnets. The
most abundant and responsive of which is the
“Proton”- the nucleus of the “Hydrogen”.
Once the Patient is Placed in the Cylindrical
Magnet, the Diahnostic Process Follows Three (3)
Basic Steps:
•First, MRI creates a steady state
within the body by placing the
body in a steady magnetic field
that is 30,000 times stronger
than the earth’s magnetic field.
•Then MRI stimulates the body
with radiowaves and “listens” to
the body’s electromagnetic
transmission at a selected
frequency.
•The transmitted signal is
used to construct
internal images of the
body using the principles
similar to those
developed for CT
scanners.

In the current medical practice, MRI is

preferred for diagnosing most diseases of the
Brain and Central Nervous System.
It provides equivalent anatomical resolution
and superior contrast resolution to that of CT
scan.
 So, the physical principles of MR image
production are totally different from CT and
Conventional radiography.
MRI also produces functional information
similar to that os “Positron Emission
Tomography” (PET) scanners, but with superior
anatomical detail.
Although an MRI scan is relatively expensive,
it may actually reduce cost to patient’s and
hospital by providing diagnostic evaluation to
out-patients and thereby frequently limiting
more expensive hospitalization.
 And because it does not use Ionizing radiation,
MRI is risk-free since it examine only through the
interactions of magnetism and radiowaves with
tissue to obtain an image, except for patients
with “Cardiac Pacemakers”, patient who might
have an iron filings next to their eyes, patients
with Inner Ear transplants and patients with
Aneurysmal clips in their brain.
 SIGNIFICANT ADVANTAGES OF MRI OVER OTHER
DIAGNOSTIC MODALITIES:
1. Best Low Contrast Resolution
2. No Ionizing Radiation
3. Direct Multi-Planar Imaging
4. No Bone or Air Artifacts
5. Direct Flow Measurements
6. Totally Non-Invasive
7. Contrast Media not required.
Principles of Magnetic Resonance Imaging:
Magnetic Resonance Imaging is founded on the
principles of “Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR).
NMR has been an important branch of Physics
and Chemistry since 1940’s when it was
discovered independently by Bloch and Purcell.
Initially, a tool used by chemist to better
understand the properties of materials, NMR
came to be tought of as having applications for
biological systems as early as 1971.
Over the time since then, techniques have
evolved to the point at which NMR has become
indispensable in the diagnosis of disease.
 The most abundant element in the human
body in the “Hydrogen” which is composed of a
single proton that possesses magnetic properties.
Once the patient is placed in an ordinary
couch, the hydrogen nuclei are pointed
anywhere. But if the patient is placed in a
magnetic couch, the hydrogen nuclei will tend to
aligned because of the extended magnetic field
which then causes to become excited.
Excited means, that the hydrogen nuclei has
an excess energy that would be released in a
form of radiowaves or we call it as the “Free-
Induction Decay (FID)”, which is the signal
coming from the patient.
 This Free-Induction Decay will now be
received by the antenna that is connected to
the machine and is then interpreted by the
computer.
COMPARISON OF MR TO CONVENTIONAL
RADIOGRAPHY:
 Since MR provides sectional images; it serves as
a useful adjunct to conventional x-ray
techniques.
 With radiograph, all body structures exposed by
the x-ray beam are superimposed into one
“flat” image.
That is why multiple projections or contrast
agents are required to clearly distinguish one
anatomic structure or organ from another.
 However, sectional imaging techniques such
as Ultrasound, Computed Tomography and
Magnetic Resonance Imaging more easily
separate the various organs because there is
no superimposition of structures.
 In addition to problems with overlapping
shadows, conventional radiography is
relatively limited in its ability to distinguish
types of tissues.
Also in radiographic techniques, contrast,
the ability to discriminate two different
substances depends on differences in x-ray
attenuation within the object, and the ability of
the recording medium (ex. film) to detect these
differences.
 Radiographs cannot detect small attenuation
changes. In general, conventional
radiographs can distinguish only air, fat, soft
tissue, bone and metal where the difference
in attenuation between each group is large.
Most organs, for example, liver and kidneys
cannot be separated by differences in x-ray
attenuation alone unless the differences are
magnified through the use of contrast agents.
 MR can also resolve relatively small contrast
differences among tissues.
It should again be emphasized that these
tissue differences are independent from the
differences in x-ray attenuation.
 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
It was Democritus, a Greek Philosopher who
was the first to theorize that all matter consists of
both invisible and indivisible particles, which he
named it “atoms” from the Greek word “Atomos”
– meaning “uncut”.
It was also the early Greeks who first became
mystified how certain objects would be attracted
or repelled by invisible forces that we know as
“static electricity”.
Concurrently, in the city of Magnesia in Asia
Minor (Turkey), the mysteries of mass further
perplexed humans when they observe that when
certain rock formations were spun on their axes,
 they always and immediately returned to
their original orientation.
These magnetized structures, which are
called Lodestones, were used for navigational,
religious and magical purposes.
The city of Magnesia is the origin of the term
“Magnetism”.
The heart of MRI mathematics that we now
use to translate raw MR signals into Spatial
location first emerged when the brilliant Jean-
Baptiste-Joseph Fourier first introduced this
very complex mathematical process over 200
years ago while serving Emperor Napoleon of
France.
 Our early ancestors (BC) were the first to
theorize that there was a relationship between
electricity (electron flow) and magnetism
(properties of lodestone).
However, its relationship remained unsolved
until approximately 2000 years later.
IN 1819, Hans Christian Oersted accidentally
discovered that electricity produces magnetism
when he noted that a compass needle would
deflect in the presence of an electric charge.
 Twelve years later, Michael Faraday stated and
successfully proved that since electricity can
produce magnetism, why not the reciprocal? Why
can’t magnetism produce electricity?
This revelation gave rise to Faraday’s law of
magnetic induction, which is not only the basis of
MR signal detection but also is the precursor to
modern-day electro mechanics.
Faraday discovered that magnetic fields
traversed through an electrical coil at a 90
degree angle would induce a voltage/current in
that coil.
He further noted that in order for magnetic
induction to be sustained the magnetic field had
to be interrupted or pulsed.
 For this contribution, and many others,
Michael Faraday is regarded by many as the
“Father of Electricity”.
The scene was set for Wilhelm Conrad
Roentgen to discover high frequency
Electromagnetic x-ray in November 8, 1895 and
Frederick Joliot and Marie Curie the Gamma ray
in 1896.
Their discoveries soon demonstrated that
high frequency wave energies were identifiable,
detectable, measurable and often biologically
damaging.
There are many physicists/scientists who
collectively set the stage for Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI).
The most significant are as follows:
1911- Ernest Rutherford : recognized the
Nucleus.
1911- J.J. Thompson : Objective proof of
electron’s existence.
1913 – Neil's Bohr : Defined the electron
geometric patterns and properties; opened door
to quantum physics.
- Otto Stern : established method to
measure a Magnetic Dipole Moment (DMD).
- Wolfgang Pauli : Coined the phrase
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance.
- Isidor Isaac Rabi : devised and performed
the first Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
experiment.
 The basic principle of MRI is that certain
atomic nuclei, if placed in a magnetic field can
be stimulated by (absorb energy from)
radiowaves of the correct frequency.
Following this stimulation, the nuclei release
the extra absorbed energy by transmitting
radiowaves (MR signal), which can be receive by
an Antenna and analyzed.
Relaxation time represent measurement of
the rates of this energy release.
These properties of Magnetic Resonance were
first discovered in the 1940’s by separate
research groups headed by Felix Bloch and
Edward Purcell.
 Their work led to the use of MR
Spectroscopy (an instrument that produces
spectra especially of visible electromagnetic
radiation) for the analysis of complex
molecular structure and dynamic chemical
processes.
In 1946, two American Theoretical Physicist
Felix Bloch and Edward Purcell continued to
explore the mystery of the atom.
While working independently, they noted
that when a test-tube sample of a pure
substance was magnetically energized and
radio-frequency bombarded the excited atoms
themselves would respond by singing their own
atomic “tune”.
 These tune signals were detected and
recorded into Spectroscopic image
corresponding to their frequency values.
Virtually, overnight Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance, the prelude to Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (MRI) was about to be born.
Both Bloch and Purcell were the recipients of
the Nobel Prize in 1952 for their major
contribution in uniquely discovering and
implementing the use of atomic energy for
analytical purposes.
 The world of medical imaging was irrevocably
altered when in 1970 a Visionary American
Physician/Physicist, Dr. Raymond Damadian
exclaimed to some of his close co-workers that he
was going to build a scanner for whole body human
imaging.
Dr. Damadian suddenly was struck with the idea
while performing Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
experiments on rats that he had surgically
implanted with malignant cells.
He readily observed that the rat tumor tissues
would respond to magnetic excitation and, when
bombarded by a resonant pulse, would emit two
different types of signals as the torqued magnetic
dipole moments relaxed to equilibrium.
 These signals would vary in their image
contrast characteristics corresponding to whether
the tissue was healthy or diseased.
It was Felix Bloch who named these two
relaxation rates T1 & T2, many years prior to
Damadian’s discovery.
Dr. Damadian also discovered in the early
1970’s that the structure of water is the very
essence of MR imaging.
The primary reason is that, each water
molecule contains a very intense magnetic
(north/south) dipole because its hydrogen’s
orbiting/spinning electrons spend more time
orbiting around the bonded oxygen that they
spend orbiting the hydrogen.
 This condition creates an intense regional
source of MR signals which Damadian
subsequently proved to be detectable and
recordable as a characteristic image.
Dr. Damadian and his team spend the next
seven years designing and building the very first
MRI Whole Body Scanner for whole body human
imaging.
On July 3, 1977, they performed the first
whole body Trans-axial Proton density weighted
slice image requiring 4 hours and 45 minutes.
 In 1973, Paul Luterbur published the first
cross-sectional images of objects obtained
with MR techniques.
These first images were crude (unrefined
petroleum) and only large objects could be
distinguished.
Since then, there has been an explosion in MR
technology so that currently very small
structures can be imaged rapidly and the
resolution of MR images is approaching that of
Computed Tomography.
 1967 – Jasper Jackson produced the first MR
signal from a live animal.
 1972 – Paul Lauterbur and Raymond Damadian
produced the first Magnetic Resonance image.
 1975 – Damadian produced the first live
animal MR images.
 1977 – first diagnostic human images has been
obtained.
Relevant Nomenclatures (Terms & Quantities in
MRI)
 Free-Induction Decay (FID) – is the signal
emitted by tissue after an “RF Pulse” has
excited the nuclear spins of that tissue at
resonance.
 Gradient Magnetic Field – a change in the
intensity of a magnetic field in space.
If the change is smooth and proportional, it

is called a “Linear Gradient” magnetic field.

 Gyromagnetic Ratio – is a constant, specific
ratio for each nucleus; relating the
precessional frequency in a magnetic field.
 Larmor Frequency – is the frequency at which
a nucleus precesses in a magnetic field
dependent on the strength of the applied
magnet.
 Magnetic Moment – a force created when a
Magnetic Dipole (magnetic poles having equal
magnitude but of opposite sign or polarity) is
in a magnetic field.
 Magnetization – is the large scale macroscopic
magnetic moment resulting from many nuclear
magnetic moments.
 Precession – is the wobble of the rotational
axis of a spinning body about a stationary axis
that describes a cone.
 Radiofrequency (RF) – an electromagnetic
radiation having a frequency from 0.3KHz to
300GHz.
MRI employs RF in the range of approximately
1-100 MHz.

1 Hertz – 1 cycle or oscillation per second

KHz - thousands of cycles per second
MHz - millions of cycles per second
GHz - bollions of cycles per second
 Resonance – is the transfer of vibrating energy
from one system to another.
 Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) – is the power
absorbed by tissue during RF irradiation.
 Spin Density (SD) – is a measure of the
concentration of nuclei contributing to the
MR signal by release of energy following
resonance.
- is the concentration of nuclei in tissue
precessing at the Larmor Frequency and
contributing to MRI signal.
 T1 Relaxation Time – is the time required for
the interactions between “nuclear spins” and
the “tissue lattice” to return to normal
following RF excitation.
- is also called “Spin-Lattice” or
“Longitudinal Relaxation Time”.
 T2 Relaxation Time – is the time required for
the interaction between “nuclear spins” and
“adjacent nuclear spins” to return to normal
following RF excitation.
- is also called “Spin-Spin” or “Transverse
Relaxation Time”.
 Tesla (T) – is the system international (SI) unit
of magnetic field strength. The classic unit is
Gauss.
o 1 Tesla = 10,000 Gauss or 10 Kilogauss.

 The Earth’s Magnetic field approximates 0.5

Gauss.
 Antenna – a device for transmitting or
receiving radiowaves.
 Attenuation – is the reduction or weakening
in energy or amountof beam of radiation as it
passes through tissues or other substances.
 Cryogenic – relating to extremely low
temperature.
- Freezing at or near absolute zero.
 Both liquid Helium and Nitrogen is generally
used in MRI to optimize superconductivity.
 Frequency – is the number of times that a
process repeats itself in a given period of
time.
 Fringe Field – portion of the magnetic field
extending away from the confines of the
magnet that cannot be used for imaging,
instead can affect nearby equipment or
personnel.
 Gating – organizing the data so that the
information used to construct the image
comes from the same point the cycle of a
repeating motion, such as heartbeat.
 Gauss – is a unit of magnetic field strength.
 Noise – is the random contribution to the total
signal that arise fron stray external
radiowaves, imperfect electronic apparatus,
etc.
 Noise cannot be eliminated but it can be
minimized. Likewise, noise tends to degrade
the image by interfering with accurate
measurement of the true MR signal.
 Nucleus (plural-nuclei) – is the central point
of an atom composed of protons and
neutrons.
 Paramagnetic – referring to materials that
alter the magnetic field of nearby nuclei.
 Paramagnetic substances are not themselves
directly imaged by MR, but instead change
the signal intensity of the tissue where they
localize, thus acting as MR contrast agents.
 Paramagnetic agents shorten both T1 and T2
of the tissues they affect, actions which tend
to have opposing effects on signal intensity.
 Permanent Magnet – an object that produces a
magnetic field without requiring an external
electricity supply.
 Proton Density – is a measure of proton
concentration.
 Pulse – a short burst of radiowaves. If the
radiowaves are of the appropriate frequency,
they can give energy to nuclei that are within
a magnetic field by the process of “Magnetic
Resonance”.
 Pulse Sequence – is a series of radiowave
pulses designed to excite nuclei in such a way
that their energy release has varying
contribution from Proton Density, T1 or T2
processes.
 Raw Data – is the information obtained by
radio reception of the MR signal as stored by
a computer.
 Relaxation – is the return of excited nuclei to
their normal unexcited state by the release
of energy.
 Relaxation Time – represents a measurement
of the rates of energy release in Magnetic
Resonance.
- it is a measure of the rate at which
nuclei after stimulation, release their
extra energy.
 Resistive Magnet – a simple electromagnet in
which electricity passing through coils of wire
produces a magnetic field.
 Signal in MR – is the radiowave that is
transmitted by nuclei on relaxation.
 Spin-Lattice Relaxation – isone of the major
determinants of MR signal strength which is
the release of energy by excited nuclei to
their general environment.
 T1 is the rate constant measuring
Spin-Lattice Relaxation.
 Spin-Spin Relaxation – one of the major
determinants of MR signal strength which is
the release of energy by excited nuclei by
interaction among themselves.
 T2 is the rate constant measuring
Spin-Spin Relaxation.
 Superconductive Magnet – an electromagnet in
which the coils of wire are cooled to extremely
low temperature so that the resistance to the
conduction of electricity is nearly eliminated.
 Spectroscopy – science of analysing the
components of an electromagnetic wave
usually after its interaction with some
substances.
 Slice – a cross-sectional image.
- a thin section of the body from which
data is acquired to produce the image.
 Resonance – the process of energy absorption
by an object that is tuned to absorb energy of a
specific frequency only.
 Angular Momentum – is the angle formed
between a precessing object and its imaginary
axis.
 Axis – an imaginary line that passes through
the center of the body of mass or field of
force.
 In MRI, the conventional X = sagittal
Y = coronal
Z = trans-axial

 Solenoid – a helix (coil) with electricity

flowing through the conductor.
Solenoid can be identified by its North and
South pole.
 The Greek word Solenoid means
“channelled”
 Aliasing – is an artificial wraparound image
that extends beyond the image proper caused
by misregistration of the higher frequency
component being posted at the lower
frequency areas.
 Voxel – a 3D volumetric portion of an image
where viewing face is the pixel and whose
depth is the third dimension.
 Velocity – speed in a particular direction.
 Viscosity – a property of a fluid or semi-fluid
that affects its mobility.
 Spatial Resolution – is the ability to define
minute adjacent objects/points in an image
and is generally measured in lines pairs/mm
(lp/mm)
 Spectrometer – is a computer-controlled part
of an MR system which generate the MR
phenomenon.
 Spin – is the intrinsic angular momentum
behavioral pattern that create the precessing
MDM’s (magnetic dipole moments)
SYMBOLS:
 2DFT – Two Dimensional Fourier Transform
 B - Magnetic Field
 B1 - RF Torquing Pulse
 Bo – Static Magnetic Field
 CNR – Contrast-to-Noise Ratio
 FT – Fourier Transform
 y - Angular Momentum
 ADC – Analog-to-Digital Converter
 BW – Bandwidth
 DTPA – Diethylenetriamine Penta acetic acid
 SAR – Specific Absorption Rate
 RF – Radiofrequency
 NEX – Number of Excitation
 SE – Spin Echo
 T - Tesla
 T1 – Longitudinal Relaxation Time, MR signal
 T2 – Transverse Relaxation Time, MR signal
 TE – Echo Time
 TI - Inversion Time
 TR – Repetition Time
 FOV – Field of View
 M - Magnetization
 Mo – Magnetic Dipole Moment
 Mxy – Magnetic Dipole Moments in the
transverse x-y plane.
PROTON PRECESSION and RESONANCE

Precession – is the phenomenon of magnetic field

or any object spinning or gyrating around an
imaginary axis of its own creation.
It is the wobble (rotation) of the rotational axis
of a spinning body about a stationary axis that
describes a cone.
The principles of NMR are based on the fact
that the nuclei of certain elements have a
magnetic moment.
This means that if a sample of atoms of one of
these elements were placed in a magnetic field,
its nuclei would tend to line up with the field.
 The nuclei don’t actually line up exactly in the
direction of the magnetic field, however. The
laws of quantum mechanics dictate that they
align at an angle to the direction of the field.
Each type of nucleus has a quality known as
angular momentum associated with it. The idea
of an intrinsic angular momentum of the nucleus
is fundamental to MRI.
It can be compared to the example of a
spinning top. When a top is spun (past part of
spin) at an angle to the vertical, it will precess
about the vertical axis. That is, the top will
rotate its own axis, and the axis of the top’s
rotation will revolve about the vertical axis.
 This precession is due to the angular momentum
of the top, which is in turn due to the spinning of the
top.
In the same way, a nucleus that is aligned at an
angle to the direction of the magnetic field will
precess about the axis of the field.
The analogy is so exact that the nuclei are
commonly referred to as spins that are manipulated
to generate images.
In quantum mechanics, the angular momentum is
represented by a number called the spin of the
nucleus.
Depending on the value of the spin number of a
particular nucleus, there will be several different
orientations in which the nuclei may line up in a
magnetic field.
 Each orientation is represented by a different
angle from the direction of the magnetic field
about which the nucleus will precess.
The frequency at which the nucleus precesses
is a function of both the strength of the magnetic
field and the particular nucleus.
This frequency called the Larmor Frequency,
is equal to the product of the strength of the
magnetic field and a constant called the
Gyromagnetic Ratio.
The gyromagnetic ratio is unique for each
nucleus that has a magnetic moment.
The Larmor Frequency is important because it is
the frequency at which the nucleus will absorb
energy that will cause it to change its alignment.

MAGNETIC SIGNAL PRODUCTION:

The structure of the atom can be compared
with the solar system, - with the sun representing
the central atomic “nucleus”.
The planet orbiting the sun represent the
“electrons” circling around the nucleus.
MR imaging depends on the properties of the
Nucleus.
Many, but not all, atomic nuclei have magnetic
properties, that is, they act like tiny bar magnets.
 Normally, the magnetic nuclei point in random
directions, however, if these nuclei are placed in
a strong, uniform magnetic field, they attempt to
line up with the direction of the magnetic field.
The word “attempt” is appropriate because
the nuclei do not line up precisely with the
external filed but an angle to the field, and they
rotate about the direction of the magnetic field
similar to the wobbling of a spinning top.
The wobbling motion is called Precession and
occur at a specific frequency (rate) for a given
atom’s nucleus in a magnetic field of a specific
strength.
 These precessing nuclei can absorb energy if
they are exposed to pulses of radiowaves,
provided the radiowaves are of the same
frequency as the frequency of the nuclear
precession.
This absorption of energy occurs through the
process of Resonance.
After the external radiowaves is turned off,
the excited nuclei relax;
They release their excess absorbed energy in
the form of radiowaves. This radiowaves
transmitted by the nuclei represents the MR
signal and is not pulsed.
 The MR signal can be picked up by a sensitive
antenna, amplified and process by a computer
to produce a sectional image of the body.
This image, like image produced by a CT
scanner, represents an electronic image that
can be viewed on a television monitor and
adjusted to produce the most information.
If desired, the image can be photographed
for further study.
Most MR image currently involves the
element hydrogen, the nucleus of which is a
single proton.
 Hydrogen nuclei are the strongest nuclear
magnets on a per-nucleus basis (thus giving the
strongest MR radio signal).
Also, hydrogen is the most common element
in the body (again giving the strongest signal).
Strong signal are important to produce a
satisfactory images. Nevertheless, many other
nuclei in the body are potential candidates for
imaging.
Such nuclei as Phosphorus and Sodium may
give more useful or diagnostic information than
hydrogen, particularly in efforts to understand
the metabolism of normal and abnormal tissues.
 Changes in metabolism may prove to be more
sensitive and specific in the detection of
abnormalities than the more physical and
structural changes recognized by hydrogen
imaging MR or by CT.

MR SIGNAL SIGNIFICANCE
Conventional radiographic techniques
including CT, produce images based on a single
property of tissue: x-ray attenuation or density.
MR images are more complex because they
contain information about Three Properties of
Matter:
Three Properties of Matter:
1. Nuclear Density
2. Relaxation Rates
3. Flow Phenomena

• Each contributes to over-all MR signal

strength.
The computer processing convert signal
strength to a shade of gray on the image.
Strong signal are represented as white in the
image and weak signal are black.
 One determinant of signal strength is the
number of precessing nuclei (spin density) in a
given volume of tissue.
The signal released by the excited nuclei is
proportional to the number of nuclei present.
Therefore, signal strength depends on the
nuclear concentration or density.
Since the nucleus of hydrogen is a single
proton, this is often referred to as proton
density.
Most soft tissues, including fate have similar
number of protons per unit volume, so that
proton density poorly separate most tissues.
 However, some tissues have very few
hydrogen nuclei per unit of volume; example
includes the cortex of the bone and air in the
lungs.
These have very weak signals as a result of
low proton density and can be easily
distinguished from other tissues.
MR signal intensity also depends on the
Relaxation Time of the nuclei.
` The process of energy release by the excited
nuclei is called relaxation, and this occur at
different rates in different tissues.
 There are two processes by which excited
nuclei relax:
o When the nuclei released their excited
energy to the general environment (or lattice –
the arrangement of atoms in a substance), this
is called the Spin-Lattice Relaxation and the
rate of this relaxation process is called T1.
o Spin-Spin Relaxation is the release of energy by
the excited nuclei through interaction among
themselves and the rate of this process is
measured by T2.
The rates of relaxation (T1 & T2) of a hydrogen
nucleus depend on the chemical environment in
which that nucleus is located.
 Chemical environment differs among tissues.
For example, the chemical environment of a
hydrogen nucleus in the spleen differs from that
of a hydrogen nucleus in the liver.
The relaxation rates of these nuclei differ, and
the MRI signals given off by these nuclei differ.
Liver and Spleen have a different signal
intensity and different appearance on the image,
enabling the viewer to discriminate between
them. Similarly, fat can be separated from muscle
and many tissues can be distinguished from
others, based on the rate of relaxation of their
nuclei.
The most important factor in tissue
discrimination is the “relaxation time”.
 The signals produced by MR imaging
techniques contain a combination of Proton
Density, T1 & T2 information.
By stimulating the nuclei with certain specific
radiowave pulse sequences, the radio signal that
the nuclei release may have more information
about proton density, or about T1, or about T2.
Therefore, one can obtain images weighted
towards any one of these three (3) parameters.
In most imaging schemes, a short T1 gives a
high MR signals in T1 weighted images.
Conversely, along T2 gives a high signals in T2
weighted images.
 Using data from two or more regular images,
computer calculation of pure proton density, T1
or T2 images can be made.
However, these calculated images have more
noise and less resolution than regular MR
images.
The final property that influence image
appearance is Flow.
Moving substances, for complex physical
reasons usually have weak signals. Flowing
blood in vessels have a low signals, easily
discriminated from surrounding stationary
tissues without need for contrast agents
required by regular radiographic techniques.
 Stagnant blood (such as an acute blood clot)
typically has high MR signals in most imaging
schemes, as a result of this short T1 and long T2.
It may be possible to assess vessels patency or
determine the rate of blood flow through vessels
by employing this property of MR.

MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGES

Magnetic Resonance Imaging has many
characteristics in common with other imaging
modalities.
Such characteristics are; Spatial Resolution,
Low Contrast Resolution and Noise.
SPATIAL RESOLUTION
At present, the Spatial Resolution of MRI is
equal to that of Computed Tomography.
When imaging high-contrast objects, structures
less than 1mm can be visualized routinely.
Still higher spatial resolution can be obtained
by reducing slice thickness or by increasing the
amount of data collected.
To increase data collection, one must
increased MRI signal acquisition, but this may
require an unacceptably long examination time.
 Another way to improve spatial resolution is
by raising the MR signal strength.
Signal increases with the magnetic field
strength. However, there are practical
limitations to how strong the magnet can be
used for MRI.
Higher magnetic fields require more intense
and higher-frequency RF pulses which are often
an unacceptable solution.

CONTRAST RESOLUTION
One of the fundamental advantages of MRI
isits potential for resolution of low-contrast
structures.
 A determining factor in the contrast between
two tissues in a radiographic image is the
difference in their x-ray attenuation coefficient.
For most tissues, these differences amount to
less than 1%.
In conventional radiographic image, this 1%
contrast is degraded by scatter radiation.
In CT, scatter radiation is largely rejected so
that 0.5% contrast can be imaged.
The difference in the MRI Parameters among
biologic tissues is frequently 30% or more.
 We must remember that any MR image is a
mixture of all three NMR parameters: Spin Density
(SD), T1 and T2.
By adjusting the RF pulse sequence usedto
excite the nuclear spins, one can alter the
relative contribution of these three factors and
significantly change the appearance of the image.
Improper RF pulse selection can lead to total
loss of contrast at what are termed as Null
Regions.
Thus, the relative contrast between tissues as
they appear on the image can be varies drastically
by the RF pulse sequence chosen.
 It is important to remember that tissue
containing no signal-producing hydrogen nuclei
such as air or cortical bone, will always appear
dark in the image.
Furthermore, fat and skin will usually
appear bright because they have an abundance
of hydrogen.
The general relationship between the
appearance of various tissues and their relative
values of Spin Density, T1 and T2 are as
follows:
 Note that these relationships are altered with
tissue in a diseased state:

Tissues Spin Density T1 T2

Fat & Skin High/White Short/White Long/White

Bone Low/Black Very long/Black Very long/Black

White Matter High/White Short/White Long/Gray

Gray Matter High/White Long/Gray Long/Gray

CSF Very high/White Very long/Gray Very long/Black

NMR PARAMETERS:
The MRI signal contains information about not
just a single parameter, but about three
independent parameters.
These are Spin Density, T1 & T2.

 SPIN DENSITY
Perhaps the simplest of these parameters to
understand is Spin Density (SD).
As one might imagine, the strength of the
signal received from the precessing nuclei is
proportional to the number of nuclei within the
detection volume of the MR imager.
 That is, if exactly the same experiment is
performed on two samples, one of which has
twice the number of hydrogen nuclei as the
other, the signal received from this second
sample is twice as large.
In other words, one sample has twice the
density of spinning protons as the other
sample, meaning twice the number of
detectable spins.
Spin Density therefore is an indication of
hydrogen concentration.
 T1 RELAXATION TIME
To understand the other two (2) parameters,
T1 & T2, we must take first a closer look at the
details of what happens to the nuclear spins when
they absorb energy from an RF pulse.
When a patient is placed in a strong magnetic
field, the passing hydrogen nuclei attempt to align
themselves with this field.
However, thermal agitation prevents alignment
of many of the nuclei. The constant bouncing of
one molecule of another knocks some nuclei out
of alignment.
As one disturbed nucleus in coming back into
alignment, another somewhere nearby is being
bounced out of alignment.
 Thus, at room temperatures there is an
equilibrium situation, and at any moment some
of the nuclei are aligned and some are
misaligned.

 T2 RELAXATION TIME
T2 represents another type of relaxation. This
type of relaxation refers to the second,
independent interaction occurring among
hydrogen nuclei after excitation by the RF pulse.
The RF pulse causes the randomly oriented
hydrogen nuclear spins to precess in phase, that
is, they become Phase Coherent.
 Following a 90 degree RF pulse, the net
magnetization is rotating at the Larmor
Frequency in the XY plane.
When the net magnetization is first tipped
into the XY plane, the net magnetization in each
part of the tissue is pointed in precisely the same
direction, namely, along the X axis.
All regions of the tissue are said to be in
phase. Within the tissue, however, individual
nuclei are continually in motion.
As they pass near each other, their magnetic
moments interact, altering their rate of
precession.
 With time, the interaction of the slight
magnetic field of one spinning nucleus alters the
magnetic field of a neighbor, causing the
neighbor to precess slightly faster or slower.
The nuclear spins rapidly dephase which
causes the Magnetic Dipole Moments in the
transverse xy plane (Mxy) to shrink while still
precessing at the Larmor frequency.
STANDARD IMAGE SEQUENCE PARAMETERS:
(DEFINITIONS)

 PULSE SEQUENCE
The selection of a particular pulse sequence
partly determines the image sequence
parameters and their limitations.
The most common pulse sequences used in
MRI today are Spin Echo, Field or Gradient Echo
and Inversion Recovery.
There are several variations or modifications
of the pulse sequences, such as Narrow
Bandwidth sequences, 3DFT, STIR and Chemical
Shift Imaging.
 Once we determine the pulse sequence type
needed to yield the desired effect, we will select
image sequence parameters accordingly.
 SPIN ECHO
The sequence that begins with a 90 degrees RF
pulse followed by a 180 degree refocusing pulse
to obtain a more usable signal is called Spin Echo.
The echo is the signal from the spins within the
tissue that have undergone perturbation from an
RF pulse.
Multi echo spin echo sequences require
multiple echoes; one 180 degrees refocusing
pulse for every additional echo required.
 FIELD ECHO or GRADIENT ECHO
Field Echo pulse sequences begin with a flip
angle usually less than 90 degrees, but not
always.
Smaller flip angles result in decrease time for
longitudinal relaxation to occur, therefore, TR
(Repetition Time) can be reduced.
In addition, instead of a 180 degree
refocusing pulse, a gradient reversal technique
is used to obtain the echo.
 INVERSION RECOVERY
In this type of pulse sequence, a 180 degree
RF pulse is delivered first so that the net
magnetic vector lies on the longitudinal plane,
only in the negative z-axis.
After a period of time, a conventional spin
echo RF pulse of 90 degrees is performed
followed by a 180 degrees refocusing pulse.
This portion of the inversion recovery pulse
sequence orients the longitudinal vector in the
transverse plane where the usable signal is
collected.
 TR (REPETITION TIME
TR (Repetition Time) is the amount of time
we wait between successive pulse sequences
applied to the same slice.
It is delineated by initiating the first RF pulse
of the sequence then repeating the same RF
pulse at a time.
It is important for its effect on T1 Relaxation
Time and the amount of magnetization vector
available for longitudinal relaxation during
subsequent RF pulses.
Therefore, it is controlled factor in signal
production.
TR is also a factor in total scan time.
 TE or ECHO TIME
TE (Echo Time) is the time from the original
RF pulse to the peak of the echo.
It is the time that we receive any returning
signal which will be encoded based on specific
tissue characteristics.
The result of T2 dephasing will be evident as
T2 contrast and will be identified using a specific
TE.
 FLIP ANGLE
The flip angle used in a pulse sequence will
control the amount of vector component that
will be forced by RF into the transverse plane.
The amount of transverse magnetization and
therefore the amount of signal available is
maximized using a conventional spin echo pulse
sequence.
Any flip angle less than 90 degrees will flip
spins into the transverse plane as well, so the
resultant vector and the signal will be less.
TR (Repetition Time) and T1 Relaxation play a
paramount role when the selection of flip angle
becomes a necessity as in field or gradient echo
imaging.
 TI or INVERSION TIME
TI (Inversion Time) is the interpulse time of
the inversion recovery sequence, greatly
influences the contrast of an IR (Inversion Time)
pulse sequence.
Specifically, it is the time between the
inverting 180 degree RF pulse and the 90 degrees
excitation pulse.
The choice of TI is crucial in determining the
amount of T1 growth that will occur during the
interpulse time and which will contribute to the
resultant signal and contrast.
TI (inversion time) selection is based on
clinical indication.
 If fat suppression is desired, a short T1 is chosen
(approximately 0.69 of the T1 of fat).
When differentiating between tissues with fairly
close T1 relaxation time, such as white or gray
matter, the T1 should be much longer and will result
in images with greater contrast between the Central
Nervous System structures.

 SLICE THICKNESS
Slice Thickness is the depth of a three-
dimensional volume of imaged area.
It is an important image sequence parameter in
MR imaging due to its effect on signal-to-noise ratio,
spatial resolution and partial volume effect.
 Signal-to-Noise ration (SNR) and Partial
Resolution have an inverse relationship, so the
selection of slice thickness becomes a balancing
game between maximizing detail over the region
of interest and maintaining SNR.
Slice thickness is chosen according to the
anatomy being imaged, clinical indications and
pulse sequence limitations of the hardware and
software.
 GAP
Slice selection during the spatial encoding
process of MR imaging is accomplished by
generating and RF pulse at the resonant
frequency of the slice, as specified by the
Larmor equation.
RF slice profiles on MR systems can be
Gaussian profiles, square profiles or any variant
thereof.
Cross contamination between slices can occur
with a corresponding decrease in SNR (signal to
noise ratio)
 Contamination result of one RF slice profile
overlapping another during slice selection of
spatial encoding.
During acquisition, the overlapped areas of the
slice have received varying resonant frequencies,
which does not allow for accurate encoding.
A Gap is merely a space between consecutive
slices controlled with the offset frequency of the
RF pulses.
This space is often operator selected and is usually
a percent of the slice thickness chosen as specified by
the imaging system.
When incorporated into the pulse sequence, cross-
contamination can be decreased of eliminated.
 NUMBER OF ACQUISITION
Number of acquisition, sometimes referred
to as Number of Excitation (NEX) or Averages,
is the number of times we collect data per
phase encode step and average the information
to produce one image.
As the signal increases linearly, random noise
also increases, thus overall improvement of
signal-to noise ratio is only by the square root of
the number of acquisitions.
Scan data acquisitions are also a factor in
scan time.
 VOXEL VOLUME
Voxels are three dimensional units having
length, width and depth.
MRI acquires tissue information as voxels.
Signal is extracted from voxels during a Fourier
Transform and through and elaborate method,
converted to a clinically useful pixel display.

 PIXEL
Pixels are individual units that collectively
comprise the length, width of the matrix.
Individual pixel contribute to the resolving
power of our image, referred to as resolution.
 For most MR systems, pixel size is determined
automatically by the choice of a specific matrix
and Field of view (FOV).
A relationship between pixel size, FOV and
matrix allows indirect selection of pixel size
according to the formula:
FOV = Matrix x Pixel size
Some MR systems allows specific selection of
the pixel size as needed to define a particular
region of interest.
The smaller the anatomy, be it normal tissue or
pathologic entity, the smaller the pixel size
necessary for edge detail.
 MATRIX
Matrix refers to the number of rows and
columns of pixels in our video image.
These dimensions are defined by the number
of phase encoding steps, performed by
convention in the y-direction of the matrix and
data sampling units or frequency encoding steps,
performed in x-direction.
These intersecting lines collectively comprise
the dimensions of the matrix.
From these dimensions, resolving power is
define.
 FIELD OF VIEW
Scan Field of View (FOV), is the total
dimension of the anatomic region of interest and
is defined by the matrix and the resolution in
two dimensions.
Scan FOV is selected to cover a particular
tissue volume. The larger the dimension of the
matrix and pixel size, the larger the FOV.
 ECHO TRAIN LENGTH
Echo Train Length (ETL), is a scan parameter
specific to newer fast scan techniques.
It is the total number of echoes collected
during one repetition (TR) of one slice sampled
using varying phase encoding steps for each
echo.
In conventional spin echo pulse sequencing,
only one phase encode step (one phase gradient
variation) per repetition time (TR) per slice is
generated.
 ECHO TRAIN SPACING
Echo Train Spacing (ETS) is merely the
spacing between each echo in a fast scan
sequence.
For example, ETS in Echo Train Sequence of
25, 50 and 75 milliseconds is 25 milliseconds.
Each Train spacing (ETS) in the Echo Train
Sequence of 30, 60 or 90 milliseconds is 30
milliseconds.
Its importance of associated with its effect on
the effective echo time relative to T1, Proton
Density or T2 Weighting, and its effect on
blurring of the final image.
 EFFECTIVE ECHO TIME (ETE)
Effective Echo Time is the relative echo time
visualized on the final image.
This is achieved by acquiring the signal to the
ETE while the phase encode gradient is at or
near zero amplitude.
It is selected according to image contrast
requirements based primarily on clinical
indication.
The Effective Echo Time contribute most to
the contrast of the resultant image.
 INSTRUMENTATION
Similar to CT scan, MRI requires a patient area
(magnet room), a computer room and an
operator’s console.
CONSOLE:
The operator’s console is used to control the
computer.
The computer then initiates the appropriate
radiowave transmission, receive data and analysis
it.
Image then are viewed on the operator’s
console to ensure that the proper part of the
patient is being evaluated.
These images maybe photographed usually on
radiographic films using a multi-image camera.
 The diagnostic viewing console may perform
the same functions as the operator’s console,
depending on system configuration, except that
usually only the operator’s console can control
the actual imaging process.
COMPUTER ROOM
The computer room houses the electronics
necessary for transmitting the radiowave pulse
sequence and receiving and analysing the MR
signal.
The Raw data and the computer-constructed
images can be stored on a computer disk
temporarily and are usually transferred to
magnetic tape for permanent storage and
retrieval.
Magnet – is the major component of the MR
system located in the magnet room.
This magnet must be large enough to
surround the patient, and any antenna that are
required for radiowave transmission and
reception.

These antennas are frequently wound in the

shape of a coil and where patient is placed
within that coil, which coil itself lies within the
magnet.
The patient and the coil must be within the
magnet to be exposed to the proper magnetic
field for imaging.
Various magnet types and strength may be used
to provide the strong uniform magnetic field
required for MR imaging.
1. RESISTIVE MAGNET
Resistive Magnets are similar to
superconductive magnets in that they are
typically coils of wire through which a magnetic
field is induced. However, the wires are not
cooled to a superconductive state.
Therefore, the wires are resistive, and if a
current were applied and power supply
disconnected, the current would eventually die
out.
 The major difference, therefore, is one of
trade-off in operating cost.
A resistive magnet does not require
liquefied gases (cryogens), but it does require
a power supply to keep the magnet at a
stable field.
As a result of the increasing cost, these
magnets are not seen in commercial systems
at strength over 0.4T.
In resistive magnet, magnet field is
produced by passing an electric current
through wire coil.
The electrical resistance of the wire produces
heat and limits the maximum magnetic field
strength of resistive magnets.
The heat produced as conducted away from
the magnet by a coiling system.

2. SUPERCONDUCTIVE (CRYOGENIC) MAGNET

In 1950’s it was discovered that certain types
of metal alloy will become perfect conductor,
that is, they will have no resistance to the
passage of an electric current when their
temperature is dropped to approximately 10
Kelvin (K) (Kelvin room temperature is 293K.
 At room temperature, these materials
behave like other normal conductors, but at
very cold, cryogenic temperatures they
become conductors.
They are electromagnets which are the most
commonly used magnet. This type of magnet is
notable in that the magnetic field can be
maintained for a very long period of time
without requiring a constant source of energy.
This allows the use of this type of magnet in
systems that require extremely strong
magnetic fields (above 0.6 Tesla).
 A superconductive magnet consists of
many windings of wire that carry an electric
current made from a superconducting metal
alloy.
The magnetic field generated by this
cylinder of wires runs in the direction along
the long axis of the cylinder.
Because of the requirement that the
cylinder be wide enough to accommodate a
human for imaging (typically 55 to 70cm in
diameter), the magnet is generally very long
in order to provide a uniform field large
enough for imaging.
 Energy requirement for this type of magnet is
great, thus to reduce the energy required to
generate must take advantage of a principle
called “superconductivity’. This phenomenon
discovered in 1911 is a state in which the
resistance in a conductor goes to zero at very low
temperatures.
The advantage of a superconductive magnet
lies in the difficulty of maintaining the magnet
coils at near absolute zero.
The entire coil assembly must be housed inside
a giant, highly insulated bottle. The container has
a smooth, shiny exterior and is much like a
thermos bottle called a “Dewar”.
 Inside the Dewar are two chambers, where the
outer most chamber is filled with “liquid
Nitrogen”, that is, Nitrogen that has been cooled
so much that it has condensed into a liquid.
Liquid Nitrogen has a temperature of 97
Kelvin, which is still not near enough to absolute
zero. The interior container is filled with “Liquid
Helium” which exists at 47 Kelvin.
The superconducting coils are suspended in
this bath of Liquid Helium.
And separating this cryogenic chamber from
each other and from the environment are
vacuum chamber.
3. PERMANENT MAGNET
Are gaining popularity for systems that
operate at magnetic fields up to about
0.4T. A large part of this popularity is due
to the fact tat a permanent magnet has few
requirements to maintain it.
While a superconductive magnet
requires cryogens, and a resistive magnet
requires a power supply to maintain its
current, a Permanent magnet requires
neither.
It has a constant field that does not
require additional electricity or cooling to a
very temperature.
 Early designs of permanent magnet were
extremely heavy, even compared with the
massive superconductive and resistive units,
causing difficulties with the
placement/installing in hospitals.
With improvement in technology, permanent
magnets may become more competitive with
the other magnet types.
- Have the advantage that their magnetic field
does not extend as far away from the
magnet (fringe field) as do the magnetic
fields of other types. Fringe field are a
problem because of their effect on nearby
electronic equipment.
 The disadvantages of using of permanent
magnet are its weight and the cost of the
magnet and supporting structures.
In addition, permanent magnets are
susceptible to “Hysteresis” (a time varying
change in the field).

• Various MR systems operate at different

magnetic field strength. Magnetic field
strength is measured in Tesla or Gauss. Most
MR imaging has been performed with field
strength ranging from 0.1 to 1.5 Tesla,
although higher strength MR units are under
development.
 The disadvantages of using of permanent
magnet are its weight and the cost of the magnet
and supporting structures.
In addition, permanent magnets are
susceptible to “Hysteresis” (a time varying
change in the field).

• Various MR systems operate at different

magnetic field strength. Magnetic field
strength is measured in Tesla or Gauss. Most
MR imaging has been performed with field
strength ranging from 0.1 to 1.5 Tesla,
although higher strength MR units are under
development.
 Resistive systems generally do not exceed 0.3
Tesla. Higher field strengths required
superconductive technology.
• The choice of optimum field strength for imaging
is controversial. Higher field strength leads to
increase MR signal, which can be used to improve
image sharpness or to obtain the image data
faster. Although some authorities argue that
higher field strength leads to reduce tissue
contrast.
• Regardless of magnet type, MR imaging units are
relatively difficult to locate in a hospital. Current
units are quite heavy, up to 10 tons for resistive
and superconductive magnets and approximately
100 tons for some permanent magnets.
 With resistive and superconductive magnets,
the fringe field extends in all directions. These
fringe fields may interfere with nearby electronic
or computer equipment such as television
monitors and computer tapes. In addition, metal
moving through the magnetic fringe field, such as
automobile or elevators, may cause ripples in the
field, similar to the ripples occurring when a
pebble is thrown into a pond. This ripples can be
carried into the center of the magnet where they
distort the field and riun the image.
 Thus, MR sites must be located far enough
away from such moving metal objects to prevent
this problem. Shielding of the magnetic fringe
field to prevent its extension beyond the patient
area continues to be developed to solve this
difficulty.
* The radiowaves used in MR imaging may be the
same as those used for other nearby radio
applications. These stray radio waves from
outside sources could be picked up by the MR
antenna coils and interfere with normal image
production.
 Many MR facilities require special room
construction to shield the antenna from outside
radio interference, which adds to the cost of the
installation.

BIOLOGIC HAZARDS
Although we have very little information
regarding the biologic response of humans to the
fields of MRI, there is a large volume of research
literature concerning the biologic responses to
magnetic fields and to radio frequencies
combined individually. It can be said with
reasonable certainty at this time that there are
no harmful effects from MRI.
 Research investigations on laboratory
animals, chromosomes, plant seeds and
molecular species have shown that biologic
responses can be produced following extremely
high intensities of MRI fields. In each case, the
dose-response relationship is threshold in
nature.
Three physical fields are associated with MRI
that one might suspect of producing a biologic
response. These are the strong magnetic field
(Bo), the time-varying gradient magnetic field
(B1), and the RF emission.
 In x-ray physics, the dose of the physical agent
is measured in rad (gray (Gy). Since the
radiation dose involved in MRI is non-ionizing,
different types of dose specification are used.
The static magnetic field strength is measured in
Tesla (T) or Gauss (G), Varying magnetic field is
in Tesla per second (T/s), and radiofrequencies
(RF) in Watts per kilogram (W/kg).

BIOMEDICAL EFFECTS OF MRI

At the current levels of magnetic field
strength and radio wave energy transmission,
there are no known hazard intrinsic to patients
exposure to MR imaging.
 However, the magnetic field itself is
potentially hazardous to certain patients who
have artificial metallic or electronic devices
within them. For example, cardiac pacemakers
may be adversely affected by the strong
magnetic fields. Aneurysmal clips on blood
vessels within the skull could be twisted by the
magnetic field and vessels could be torn.
Therefore, caution must be used in allowing
patients or visitors to enter the magnet room.
Although MRI is biologically safe, certain
precaution must be taken near the magnet.
 Personnel must remember that the magnetic
fields involved are strong and are capable of
exerting significant forces on magnetic
materials such as utensils made out of iron or
steel. Care must be exercised with small
miscellaneous objects such as pins and paper
clips, since they may be easily sucked into the
magnet.
Special care is necessary when using larger
objects such as wrenches, screwdrivers and
other hand tools.
 When such objects are brought near the
magnet, the magnetic field is strong enough to
pull these from your grasp with sufficient force
to cause either injury to yourself, or other
personnel, or the patient or damage to the
imager.
MRI magnetic fields are also strong enough to
affect such other personal items as bank cards
and mechanical watches. Many credit cards
contain magnetic strips encoded with
identification information. Carrying such cards
near the magnetic field can scramble the
magnetically coded information and invalidate
the card.
EXAMINATION PROTOCOLS:

INSTRUMENT PARAMETERS:
The ability of many adjustable parameters
makes MR a complex imaging techniques.
Knowledge of the patient’s clinical condition
or the probable disease is important in choosing
the proper technique and imaging the correct
area of the body.
A choice must be made whether to obtain a
single slice image through a specific position in
the body or to obtain multiple slices.
Large area can be covered by making a series
of single slice just like CT.
 However, each MR slice requires considerable time
to acquire, usually 2 to 5 minutes, compared with less
than 1 minute for a CT slice.
The operator may choose to obtain MR images in the
Sagittal, Coronal or Transverse planes. These are
independently acquired images with equal resolution in
any plane.
Slice Thickness is important in the visualization of
pathology. More MR signal is available from a thicker
slice that a thinner slice so that thicker slices may
provide more pleasing images that are less grainy.
However, small pathologic lesions may be hidden by the
surrounding tissues in the thinner slices. Therefore
slice thickness may be adjusted depending on the type
of lesion under investigation.
 Another important parameter is the over-all
imaging time. As imaging time (per slice) is
lengthened, more MR signal is available for
analysis. Imaging quality thus improve with
increase signal. In addition, patient motion
increases with prolonged imaging time, reducing
image quality.
The radio wave pulse sequence is a crucial
parameter in MR imaging. Depending on the
choice of pulse sequence, the resulting images
may be more strongly weighted toward Proton
Density, T1 or T2 information. A pathologic
lesion may be easily recognized or difficult to
see depending on the relative emphasis given to
these factors.
MRI SAFETY CONCERNS
 Static Magnetic Field
Although it cannot be seen or felt directly,
the magnetic field of the MR system must be
respected. The field will generate a force that
acts on ferromagnetic objects, drawing them
into the magnet. The field can also affect the
operation of magnetically sensitive devices,
such as pacemakers. It can erase the data from
magnetic plates and cards (such as credit cards).
OBJECTS CONTAINING FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS
REPORTED AS HAVING BEEN INADVERTENTLY EXPOSED TO
AN MRI MAGNETIC FIELD:
Metal fan Hearing aid Chest Tube stand
Tile cutter Jewelry Bucket
Buffling machine Scissors MR Table parts
Pulse Oximeter Mop Magnet
Shrapnel Film Magazine Pen, Paper clips
Wheelchair Steel tipped Nail Clipper
Knife Tile roller Gurney
Cigarette Lighter Calculator Tools
Stethoscope Hairpin Clipboard
Pager Oxygen tank Key
Pacemakers Prosthetic limb Watch
Vacuum cleaner
 Movement of Implanted Devices
An important consideration is that
ferromagnetic objects brought into the influence
of the magnetic field maybe inside the patient as
well as externally noticeable objects.
Care should be taken to avoid deflection or
movement of these objects as a result of the
static field.
Surgically implanted clips, such as aneurysm
clips maybe ferromagnetic; these must not be
introduce into the field, and any patient with
such implanted objects should be excluded from
imaging.
 It is crucial therefore, to screen patients
before imaging them. This screening should
include a verbal examination of the patient, as
well as checking any other images that might
show implanted objects. If indicated, the
patient’s referring physician should be consulted
to ensure the patient safety.
 Magnetic Field Affecting Magnetically
Sensitive Device
Devices that are not ferromagnetic may still
be affected by proximity to a magnetic field.
The function of cardiac pacemakers, for
example, may be affected by magnetic fields as
low as 17G. Patient with these devices should
be excluded from imaging.
IMAGING COIL TECHNOLOGY
MR is based on the interaction of magnetic
fields and radiowaves. The MR signal is produced
when the tissue magnetization moves through an
antenna oriented in the transverse XY plane.
The current produced in the antenna is used to
create the final image. The RF coils are the
Antenna.
In MRI, the sample of tissue being examined is the
signal generator. The transverse magnetization vector
rotates in the XY planes rather than oscillating in a linear
orientation. When this magnetic vector rotates through
our receiver coil, the electrons in the conductor move
and produce a current in the receiver coil.
 This is known as Faraday’s Law of Induction.
When a magnetic field moves through a loop of
wire, a current is produced in that wire. The
strength of the current is related to the
conductivity of the wire, and the strength of the
magnetic field.
The stronger the magnetization vector, the
greater the amplitude of the resultant signal.
Because the rotating magnet field passes in and
out of the plane with our receiver coil, the signal
in the coil oscillates at the frequency of the
magnetic field precession.
VARIOUS CONFIGURATION OF COILS AND THEIR
APPLICATIONS:
1. TRANSMIT and RECEIVE COILS
Most MR systems have two main types of
imaging coils; Receive only and Transmit &
Receive (T/R). The two most common coils to be
configured as Transmit & Receive are the Body
coil and the Head coil.
Coils used for extremity imaging can be
either, depending on the manufacturer’s
reference.
Typically, Trnasmit & Receive coils are felt to
be more efficient than Receive only coil.
 The close a coil is to the area or part to be
excited, the less RF energy is needed to create
transverse magnetization. This directly reduces
the Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) to the patient.
In addition, having a receive coil close to the
excited volume will detect a larger signal, hence
improving the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
Several types of smaller coils may be
configured as T/R coils. They are typically used
for imaging the head and/or extremities. In a
vertical field system where the XY plane is along
the axis of the patient’s body, the basic design of
the coil is a Solenoid (a helix coil, with an
electricity following through the conductor) or a
Wraparound configuration.
 Larger body coils maybe within the magnet
enclosure or they may be outside the enclosure
but around the patient like a large clamshell.
2. RECEIVE ONLY COIL
Coils that only receive MR signal are called
Receive only coil. These coils may come in
variety of shapes, configurations and sizes. Coils
that were designed to be placed around or on a
specific area are called Surface Coils.
Some are designed to be placed internally
within the body, such as the Endorectal coil used
to image the Prostate. There are now three
different configurations of this particular coil.
Each one is specifically designed to image the
prostate, rectum or uterus.
 Surface coils and other small body part
specific coils are now often referred to as Local
Coils. It is the beginning to be a standard
practice to use some types of local coil specific
to whatever area of the body we are imaging.
SURFACE COILS:
One of the big battles in MRI is to produce
images with high Sound-to-Noise ratio (SNR).
Noise can be defined as “unwanted signal”. The
advent of surface coil imaging was a big help the
battle.
A Surface Coil is a receiving antenna which
can be placed close to the source of our signal.
 Surface coils can help improve our SNR by
listening to a more limited area than a larger
coil, such as the body coil, thereby reducing
signal we don’t want or need. In other words,
surface coils increase signal.
Getting an antenna close to the source of MR
signal enables more efficient reception of the
MR signal.
The major advantage of using a surface coil is
related to this increase in SNR.
Just as a coil transmitting radio-frequency has
a certain distance over which it radiates its
signal, a receiver coil has a certain area of
sensitivity over which it receives signal.
 The area of sensitivity is related to the
diameter of the coil. As a general rule,
increasing the size of the coil will increase the
area of coverage and decrease the SNR.
GENERAL RULES FOR SURFACE COIL USE:
1. Match the coil to the anatomy or the area you
desire to image. There is no need to use a coil
larger than the area of interest because of the
negative impact on SNR.
2. Match the field of view (FOV) to the size of
the coil. If this is done, the resolution can be
optimized and the need for anti-aliasing
techniques can be eliminated.
OTHER COIL CONFIGURATIONS
A. Helmholtz Coil can be described as two coils
working in tandem used for imaging the anterior
neck and/or the cervical spine.
This sometimes referred to as a Volume Coil.
This differs from the quadrature coil in that it is
actually two linear coils. The purpose is to
improve the signal through a volume of tissue.
B. Phased Array or Multicoil. In this type, each
coil in the array is wired to its own receiver
board or channel. In this type of configuration,
each single coil does not see any other coil in
the array.
 Usually if two coils are placed close together,
they will interact with each other reducing the
over-all SNR of the image because each coil
detects noise from the other. With Phased Array
Coils, each coil is independent of the other, each
has its own separate receiver channel.
SECONDARY COILS:
1. Shim Coil
Inside the aperture of the main magnet is
positioned a drum with up to 30 individual
windings called the Shim coils, each with its own
power supply.
 After the magnet has been brought up to
field, the current and polarity of each shim coil
will be adjusted to produce maximum
homogeneity (uniform) in external magnetic
field (Bo) (static magnetic field). The process is
called “Shimming the Magnet”.
2. Gradient Coils
Are three paired orthogonal coils located
within the gantry which collectively and
sequentially generate their magnetic field into
“Static Magnetic Field, for the prime purpose of
selective spatial excitation. Gradients are also
used for reversal pulses in fast scanning pulsing
techniques.
 To obtain spatial information about the tissue
from which the MRI signal is emitted, it is
necessary that the primary magnetic field be
slightly varied by using a “Gradient Magnetic
Field”.
The Gradient Magnetic Field is produced by
electric coils called “Gradient coils”. To obtain
projections from a variety of directions, we must
be able to orient the gradient field along either
the X, Y, or Z axes, or along any oblique plane.
Normally, the Z-Gradient coils are used for
selection of a Transaxial slice.
 When the Z-Gradient magnetic field is ON, the
RF pulse can be precisely tuned so that only the
hydrogen nuclei in a given slice of the patient
are energized.
The strength of the gradient magnetic field
and the shape of the RF pulse determine the
width of the slice selected.
If a Coronal slice is desired, the X-Gradient coil will
be energized. Energizing the Y-Gradient coil will
produce a Sagittal slice, and energizing all three pairs of
coils simultaneously will result is an oblique slice.
For a two-dimensional Fourier Transformation (2DFT)
imaging of Transaxial anatomy, the Z-gradient is ON
during the excitation RF pulse to select the appropriate
slice.
 While receiving the MR signals, the X and Y
gradient coils will be sequenced on. The X-
gradient conventionally is termed the
“Frequency-encoding Gradient”, and the Y
gradient, the Phase-encoding Gradient”.
The MRI system contains no moving parts
and can produce not only transverse images
but also sagittal, coronal, and any oblique
image of the volume of tissue lying within the
gradient coils.
FACILITY DESIGN:
Because MRI involves no ionizing radiation, it
is not necessary to shield the room with any
other x-ray attenuating material such as lead.
Depending on the design of the imager and
the location of the room, it may be necessary to
have the room shielded against radio
interference and fringe field.
Great care must also be taken to ensure that
only non-magnetic materials are used for the
structure and finish of the examination room.
 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) reinforcing rods
should be substituted for iron reinforcing bars in
any structural concrete slab or walls.
All electrical penetrations into the room must
have an electric filters to remove interfering
frequencies. Plumbing should not be iron bur
PVC or copper. And the lighting should be a
direct current.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SHIELDING
The range of radio frequencies used in MRI imaging is
very crowded with commercial and amateur radio
broadcast and other interference generated by power
transmission and electronic system.
This RF interference can easily be strong enough to
mask the faint MRI signals from the patient.
 A carefully constructed wire-mesh shield
enclosing the MR imager is necessary to
attenuate these extraneous sources of RF.
Such a shield is called a “Faraday cage or an
RF shield. This shielding, like x-ray lead
shielding, need not be visible but can be
covered by gypsum board or wood paneling.
It is important to remember that this shielding
exists solely to screen outside sources of RF
interference. No radiation shielding is required
either as a primary or secondary barrier for the
protection of personnel, patients, or the general
population as in x-ray imaging.
 Indeed, it is completely safe for attending
personnel such as Technologists and Radiologists
to remain in the room with the patient when
necessary.
Magnetic Shielding:
The magnetic field outside of the patient
aperture is called a Fringe Magnetic Field and
must be considered in the design of an MRI
facility. This is especially important if the
facility is to house a superconducting magnet
with high field strength.
The problem with the fringe field is twofolds.
 First, it can interfere with the proper
operation of mechanical and electronic
equipment. Electronic equipment is most
sensitive. Any device such a CRT, image
intensifier tube, or photomultiplier tube that
operates on the principle of electron flow in a
vacuum can be affected.
The fringe magnetic field will cause the
electron flow to be diverted. Electron
microscopes are most easily influenced.
Second, any large mass of ferromagnetic
material, especially moving masses, can distort
the homogeneity (uniformity) of the imaging
volume by interacting with the fringe magnetic
field.
 A distortion of the fringe magnetic field
results in a compensating distortion in the
imaging volume and degrade or destroys the
image.

MR CONTRAST MEDIA
Contrast agents are pharmaceuticals which
increase the information content of diagnostic
images.
Image Contrast is the difference in signal
intensity between two tissues, and Contrast
Enhancement is the process of altering this
difference.
 The term Enhancement is also generally
applied to any pharmaceutically based
manipulation of tissue as manifested on a
diagnostic image.
Image Contrast may be enhanced by
increasing or decreasing the signal intensity of
one tissue relative to another.
Image Contrast may be altered by
manipulation of the physical parameters
inherent to the imaging method, or through the
administration of a pharmaceutical to alter the
physical characteristic of tissue itself.
 The recognition of the importance of
magnetic materials and their effect on the
Relaxation time of resonating protons occurred
almost simultaneously with the discovery of the
Magnetic Resonance process in 1946.
Paul Lauterbur was not only responsible for
the seminal development of the Magnetic
Resonance technique, but also the conception
and subsequent development of contrast
enhancing media.
In 1978, he published the first use of
Paramagnetic ions and Chelate complexes to
alter relaxation times in canine tissues.
 During the early years of MRI, the need for a
contrast enhancing medium was strongly debated
. Initially, one of the primary reasons for
adopting MRI over alternate imaging modalities
was its non-invasive nature, combine with the
exceptional quality of unenhanced T1 and T2
weighted images compared with those obtained
from comparable modalities.
Contrast agents that widen the signal
difference in MR images between various normal
and abnormal structures are a continuing area of
research and development. The perfect agent
for oral administration to identify bowel loops in
MR scans has not yet been identified.
 In CT scanning, high-attenuation oral agents
clearly differentiates bowel from surrounding
lower attenuation structures.
The only intra-venous MR contrast agent
approved in the U.S. for routine clinical use is
“Gadolinium-Diethylene Triamine Penta Acetic
Acid” (DTPA) which is metal and with
paramagnetic effects.
Pharmacologically, Gadolinium-DTPA acts very
much like radiographic Iodinated I.V. agents,
wherein it distributes through the vascular
system, and its major route of excretion is the
urine.
 The development of Gadolinium-DTPA
Dimeglumine or Gadopentetate Dimeglumine,
commenced around 1981 and its first reported
use in humans occurred in 1984.
It was soon recognized that additional
enhancement of image contrast between normal
and diseased tissue could increase the
sensitivity and specificity of MR diagnosis.
MR contrast enhancement offered the hope
of identifying smaller lesions earlier in the
progression of disease, discriminating tumor
mass from edema and recurrent tumor from
fibrous tissue.
 It has lower toxicity and fewer side effects
than the I.V. Iodinated contrast media used in
radiography and Computerized Tomography.
The most important clinical action of
Gadolinium compounds is to shorten T1, and is
used most frequently in evaluation of the
Central Nervous System.
In addition, Gadolinium-enhance T1 weighted
images are better at separating “brain tumors”
or “metastasis” from their surrounding edema
than routine T2 weighted images.
Gadolinium also improves the visualization of
“small tumors”, or tumors that have signal
intensity similar to normal brain, such as
Meningiomas.
GATING:
Gating is a technique of organizing the data,
so that the information used to construct the
image comes from the same point in the cycle of
a repeating motion such as “heartbeat”. The
moving object is “frozen” at the phase of its
motion, thereby reducing image blurring.
Gated images are another technique for
improving image quality in areas of the body
where involuntary patient motion is a problem.
During the procedure, we know that patient
can hold his head still for a prolonged data
acquisition, but he cannot stop his heartbeat nor
can he stop breathing for the several minutes
required to obtain an image.
 This patient motion is a problem when images
of the chest or upper abdomen are desired. And
if this technique are not employed, part of the
MR signal maybe obtained when the heart is
contracted (systolic phase), and part when the
heart is relaxed (diastolic phase).
Now, if this information (the contraction and
relaxation phases) is combined into one image,
the image of the heart will be blurred.
To solve this problem, Gating techniques
organize the signal so that only the signal
received during a specific part of the cardiac or
respiratory cycle is used for image production.
POSITIONING:
 Patient positioning is usually straight-forward
with MR units. In general, the patient lies
supine on a table that is subsequently
advanced into the magnetic field.
 It is important to check that the patient has
no contra-indications to MR imaging such as
Cardiac Pacemakers or Intra-cranial
Aneurysmal clips.
 Occasionally patient positions other than the
supine position are employed. For example,
the patient may be turned partly to the side
to obtain oblique images.
 Prone or Decubitus positioning also may be
used to shift structures under the influence of
gravity or for patient comfort.
 Sometimes Claustrophobia may be a problem
for some patients because of the tunnel-
shaped of most MR systems.
Claustrophobia – an abnormal fear of enclosed or
narrow places. It is a psychological reaction to
being confined to a relatively small area.
Example, gantry, tunnel etc.
CLINICAL APPLICATION
A. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
MR imaging is superior to CT in imaging of the
Posterior Fossa, the portion of the brain that
includes the cerebellum and Brain stem.
Artifacts from the dense bone of the surrounding
skull obscure this area with CT. There is very
little MR signal from bone so that this area is
artifact-free with MR imaging.
In general, the absence of bone artifact with
MR is a distinct advantage over CT. However,
the inability to image calcified structures can be
a disadvantage when the lesion is more easily
recognized because of its calcium content.
 Lesions such as calcified granuloma of the
lungs or calcification in certain tumors are more
difficult to detect with MR than in CT.
MR is playing an increasing role in the routine
examination of the brain and because there is
natural contrast among tissues with MR than in
CT, the differentiation of gray matter from white
matter in the brain is better with MR. This
enables MR to be more sensitive than CT in
detecting white matter disease, such as multiple
sclerosis.
Also, primary and metastatic brain tumors,
pituitary tumors and acoustic neuromas are
generally better demonstrated by MR than CT.
 MR also can detect cerebral infarction earlier
than can CT, but both test can provide similar
information in sub-acute and chronic strokes.
 The absence of bone artifacts allows excellent
visualization of the contents of the neural
canal that is why; MR has been successfully
used to image the spinal cord.
 In addition, the technique can separate the spinal cord
from the surrounding Cerebro-spinal fluid (CSF)
without the necessity of contrast agents injected
directly into the CSF, as in CT Myelography.
 MR is sensitive in the detection of spinal cord tumors
and cystic changes of the spine, and is also valuable in
the detection of Degenerated (deteriorated) and
herniated spinal disk.
B. CHEST
The chest would seem to be an ideal area for
MR examination. The lung have low signal as a
result of low proton density, and the flowing
blood in the great vessels of the chest also have
a low MR signal.
The heart muscle is well outlined by the lung
and moving blood within the chambers.
Furthermore, examination of the mediastinum is
potentially fruitful since the normal structures of
blood vessels and airways are of low signal.
So, any tumors of the mediastinum would be
easily seen as areas of MR signal standing out
against the normal low signal surrounding.
 The ability of MR to image in multiple planes
(transverse, sagittal, coronal, etc.) may be
helpful in evaluating tumor spread in the
thoracic inlet, chest wall or brachial plexus
region.
Though difficulties with chest imaging remain
because of cardiac and respiratory motion, this
being made possible by applying Cardiac Gating
and Respiratory Gating.

C. ABDOMEN
Respiratory and Cardiac motion also detract
from upper abdominal images. Again, Gating
should be of assistance.
 There is evidence the MRI is more sensitive in
detecting primary and metastatic tumors of the
liver.
The Supra-renals (adrenal), kidneys and retro-
peritoneal structures such as lymph nodes are
very well seen in MRI.
Also, MR has some ability to predict the
histologic diagnosis of certain abnormalities. For
example, Hepatic Hemangioma- common benign
tumors of the liver have a distinctive MR
appearance that can be helpful in ruling out
other causes of Hepatic masses.
D. PELVIS
The ability of MR to image in the coronal and
sagittal planes is helpful in examining the curved
surfaces in the pelvis. For example, bladder
tumors are well shown, including those at the
dome and the base of the bladder that can be
difficult to evaluate in the transverse dimension.
In the prostate and female genital tract, MR is
useful in detecting neoplasm and its spread.
E. LIMBS
MR produces excellent images of the limbs
because they are free of involuntary motion,
and there is excellent MR contrast among the
soft tissues.
Also, the lack of bone artifact on MR permit
excellent visualization of bone marrow.
Over-all, the ability to image in multiple
planes along with excellent visualization of the
soft tissues and bone marrow, has lead to a
rapidly expanding role for MR in Musculo-
Skeletal imaging.
MR IN MUSCULO-SKELETAL IMAGING IS VALUABLE
IN;
1. Studying joints and is replacing Arthrography
2. To a lesser excellent, Arthroscopy, in evaluating
of the injured knees.
3. Local staging of soft tissue and bone tumors
4. Early detection of Ischemic Necrosis of bone
5. Early detection of Legg-Calves Perthes Disease
F. VESSELS
The contrast between soft tissue structures
and the typical low signal of flowing blood, gives
MR the ability to visualized Thrombosis within or
tumor invasion of the major vessels, such as vena
cava.
Also, vascular anomalies dissections can be
well evaluated by MR.
Special Pulse Sequence under development
allow MR visualization of moving blood within the
vascular system, and may permit non-invasive
Angiogram-like images of the vessels.
 E N D ….
PRIMO B. MONTANA, RXT, RRT, RSO, M.A.Ed.
Dean, College of Radiologic Technology
HOLY INFANT COLLEGE
Tacloban City