THE STRUCTURE AND

ORGANIZATION OF
THE HUMAN CELL
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THE STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN
CELL

By the end of this segment, you should be able to:

1.Define a cell
2.Describe the structure of a cell.
3.State the functions of the cell.
4.Describe the movement within a cell.
5.Describe cell division
 Definition of a cell
•A cell is the fundamental unit of all living things.
•It is very tiny, microscopic units which carry out complex processes that essentially make the organism a living
entity.to
• appreciate its unitary composition.
The structure of a cell
•Surrounded by a thin cell membrane or plasma membrane, which encloses the
protoplasm.
•The cytoplasm surround the nucleus : situated in the centre of the cell.
•The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear membrane and contains a dense body called
nucleolus together with small chromatin granules, the precursors of the chromosomes
which make their appearance when the cell undergoes cell division.
•The chromosomes are important because they carry hereditary (genetic) material which
determines the organism’s characteristics; these are also transmitted to the next generation.
•Other important structures include the centriole located outside the nuclear membrane
which plays an important part in the formation of cilia and flagella, which have slender
motile hairs that project from the surface of certain cells.
•The behavior of the centriole is also related to the way cells divide during multiplication.
Fine structure of the cell.
•The cell has fine structures or ultra- structure(electron microscope).
•The specific entities that make-up these organizations are called organelles.
•The organelles acts as organs of the cell as organs do to the whole organism.
•In fact sub-cellular organization is in many respects similar to structural
organization which exists in the body of a complex multicellular organism.
•The specific functions that are carried out in certain parts of the cell are integrated
in an orderly manner.
•They include the following: cell membrane; nucleus; cytoplasm; vacuole and
centrosome.
The structure of the cell
Cell membrane-
•This is the outer covering of a cell
•Is made up of an opaque jelly-like substance called
protoplasm.
•Is semi-permeable allowing solutions to pass through by
osmosis, diffusion or active transport action of nutrients and
waste products(doppa).
•It contains proteins and lipids (fatty substances).
The structure of the cell…
Nucleus
•Its is the central mass of the cell
•It controls the activities of the cell.
•It contains deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules.
•It is found inside the cytoplasm.
•Within the nucleus are chromatin threads which carry the genes.
•Nb -Genes are factors of hereditary carrying chromosomes.
The structure of the cell…
Cytoplasm
• The cytoplasm is an opaque structure.
• It encloses other structures such as: centrosomes,
mitochondria, vacuoles, and nucleus and carries ribonucleic
Acid (RNA) molecules.
• Just like the liver of animals, the cell has its equivalent thus
the mitochondria which are involved in metabolism by the
cell (oxidation of food).
• It is also a store for the nutrient, food used by the cell for
growth and repair.
The structure of the cell…
•Vacuole- Is found inside the cytoplasm.
•It contains waste materials or secretions which the cell cytoplasm has
formed and could be gotten rid off at some stage.
Centrosome-
•This is a small spherical body found near the nucleus surrounded by
thread-like structures.
•It contains two dark bodies, the centrioles which are used in the early
stages of cell division (mitosis).
Summary of cell structures and functions
Name Structure Function
Cell Membrane Bi- layer of phospholipid and globular protein Passage of molecules into and out of the cell.

Nucleus Nuclear envelop surrounds chromatins nucleolus and Control of cell

nucleoplasm.

Nucleolus Concentrated area of RNA into the nucleus. Ribosome

Chromatin (chromosomes) Composed of DNA and protein Contain hereditary information.

Endoplasmic reticulum Folds of membrane forming flattened channels and Transport by means of vesicles
tubular canals

Rough Studded with ribosomes Protein synthesis

Smooth Having no ribosomes Lipid and carbohydrate synthesis
Ribosome RNA and protein in two sub-units Protein synthesis

Golgi Apparatus Stack of membranous saccules Packing and secretion

Vacuole and vesicle Membranous sacs Container of material

Lysosome Membranous container of hydrolytic enzymes Intracellular digestion

Mitochondria Inner membrane (cristae) within outer membrane Cellular respiration

Summary of cell structures and
functions…
Cytoskeleton ------- Cellular shape and sub- cellular movement

Microfilament Actin and myosin proteins Same

Microtubule Tubulin protein Same

Cilium and flagellum 9+2 pattern of microtubules Locomotion

Centriole 9+2 pattern of microtubules Organization of microtubules associated with cell

division.
Functions of a cell.
•Metabolism- oxidation of food to release energy for repair of
protoplasm, C6H12O6+6O2=Energy+6H2O+6CO2.
•Respiration- this is referred to us cellular respiration. Oxygen which
the cell uses for metabolism passes through the cell membrane and the
cytoplasm required for metabolism.
•Reproduction- occurs as a result of multiplying up of cells during
mitosis.
•Excretion- water and carbon dioxide from metabolism are excreted
through the vacuole. Also excess heat energy is excreted through the
cell membrane.
Functions of a cell…
•Absorption- The cell takes in metabolites by the process of
absorption
•Irritability- this is a response by the cell membrane to
external stimuli such as heat and light.
•Growth- Is the increase is size of the cells until they reach
maturity.
•Movement- The whole or part of the cell may move e.g. white
blood cells move freely in the blood.
Movement of substances in and out of the
cell
The processes by which material get in and out of a cell. Such
exchanges take place by five main processes:
i. Diffusion
ii.Osmosis
iii.Phagocytosis
iv.Pinocytosis
v. Active Transport
Diffusion
•If you drop a crystal of potassium permanganate into a beaker
of water it dissolves quite easily.
•As it continue dissolving, the purple colour of the
permanganate gradually spreads until eventually it is
uniformly distributed in the water.
•What causes the potassium permanganate Molecule to
behave in this way?
•The answer is the potassium permanganate molecules are in a
state of constant random motion.
Diffusion…
•Although they can move, in any direction, the fact that initially there
are far more of them in the immediate vicinity of the crystal increases
the probability of their moving away from the crystal.
•In other words there is a net movement of molecules away from the
crystal.
•This process is diffusion and is defined as “the movement of molecules
from a region where they are at a comparatively high concentration to a
region where they are at a lower concentration”.
Diffusion…
•Diffusion will always proceed whenever such a
concentration gradient exists.
•It will continue until eventually the molecule are
uniformly distributed throughout the system at which
time “equilibrium” is said to be reached.
•Diffusion is very important in the movement of
molecules and ions in and out of cells.
Diffusion…
Think for example of a cell in your own body!
•Because it is continually being used up in respiration, the concentration
of oxygen inside the cell will be lower than it is in the blood and tissue
fluid.
•Anything that increases the concentration gradient will favour
diffusion.
•This is one of the functions of circulatory system.
Osmosis
•Although the plasma membrane of a cell is fully permeable to
respiratory gases, it is by no means permeable to all
substances.
•The porous nature of the membrane means that only those
molecules that are small enough will diffuse through it without
being prevented to do so.
•Larger molecules either penetrate slowly or not at all.
Osmosis…
•The plasma membrane is semi-permeable, permitting the passage of some
substances but not others.
•The movement of molecules across a semi-permeable membrane is known as
osmosis.
•Osmosis is really a special case of diffusion: it involves the passage of water
molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of lower
concentration.
•Osmotic pressure .. the pressure required to prevent the net movement of pure
water into an aqueous solution through a semi-permeable membrane, thereby
preventing the volume of the solution from increasing.
Active Transport
•Diffusion is purely a physical process in which molecules or ions move
from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration.
•However, there are certain biological situations where the reverse happens:
molecules or ions move from a region of low concentration to a region of
higher concentration i.e. they move against a concentration gradient.
• In this case they will require active transport (energy) to push them
against the concentration gradient
•Remember, active transport does not use or require physical forces but it
uses chemical energy.
Active Transport…
•This process will only take place in a living system that is actively
producing energy by respiration, which influence the rate of respiration.
•All these combined influence the rate of active transport in a cell.
•Biochemical studies have shown a linkage of active transport with energy
production.
•Energy in cells comes from the breakdown of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
•This is basically a chemical energy.
•The other energy will come from breakdown of carbohydrates in form of
glucose.
Pinocytosis
• While phagocytosis involves the ingestion of solid
material, pinocytosis is the ingestion of surrounding
fluid(s).
• This type of endocytosis allows a cell to engulf dissolved
substances that bind to the cell membrane prior to
internalization
• An example of pinocytosis is observed in the microvilli of
the small intestine to absorb nutrients from the lumen of
the gastrointestinal tract.
• Similarly, it is also observed in cells in the ducts of the
kidneys during the formation of urine
Cell division
•A cell must undergo a process of dividing itself in an effort to
increase in numbers and size.
•The life cycle of human require two types of cell division,
thus:
• Mitosis
• Meiosis
•Mitosis is responsible for growth and repair while meiosis is
required for gamete production.
Cell division…
Mitosis
•A vital characteristic of all living things is the ability to reproduce its kind.
•Living things are composed of cells, and it is cells that reproduce in a
process of duplication and division called mitosis.
•Some cells reproduce regularly and frequently (epithelial and connective
tissue cells) while; others experience division only under specific
circumstances.
•Again in some instances the fate is that certain cells grow and divide,
generally constituting development of more cells.
Mitosis…
•Changes occur in the nucleus because of the significance of
mitosis
•Relies in the duplication and subsequent division of DNA(the
genetic material).
•Mitosis usually occurs rapidly- within minutes.
•The period between successive divisions is called interphase.
•In animal cells there is a pair of centrioles just outside the
nucleus(cytoplasm) .
Mitosis…
•It is used to be said that interphase was a resting stage, but we now know it is not true
anymore.
•It is during interphase that the organelles are said to be metabolically active thus
carrying on their normal functions.
•If cell division is about to occur, each centriole replicates so that there are two pairs of
centrioles outside the nucleus.
•It is during this period that the DNA (in chromatin) is doubled in preparation for the
next mitosis.
•The observed nuclear changes during cell division are described by phases.
•The process has been divided into four phases: prophase; metaphase; anaphase and
telophase.
1. Prophase
•This is the first stage in which dispersed chromatin begins to thicken, shorten, and
conforming condensed chromatin or chromosomes.
•There are 46 of them of which each chromosome consists of 2 chromatids connected
by a centromere.
•Each chromatid has the equivalent DNA of a chromosome, and will be called a
chromosome in anaphase
•One chromatid of each of the 4 chromosome is designed for one daughter cell.
•As prophase ends, the nucleolus disappears and the nuclear membrane dissolves.
•In the cytoplasm, 2 pairs of centrioles, having duplicated in interphase, project asters
of microtubules; the pairs head to opposite poles of the dividing cell.
2. Metaphase
•This is the second stage of cell division
•During this stage strand of microtubules (spindle fibres) project across
the cell center from one pair of centrioles to the other 46 pairs of
chromatids
•And their centromere begin to group on the spindle fibres in the cell
center.
3. Anaphase
•Is a stage characterized by the division of the centromeres
•Then each daughter centromere is attached to one of the two chromatids.
•The chromatids are no longer paired.
•They are rightfully called chromosomes now and there are 46 of them
being drawn to each pole of the dividing cell by their centromere.
• Anaphase ends when the new daughter chromosomes arrive at their
respective poles.
4. Telophase
•It is in the telophase that the cytoplasm begins to cleave, pinching the
dividing cell into two new cells.
•In each new cell, the nucleolus and nuclear membrane are reconstituted.
•The chromosomes begin to disperse as the centromeres disappear.
•The cytoplasmic organelles are segregated into the two daughter cells as
the cleavage of the cytoplasm is rapidly completed.
•The daughter cells like their mother cell before them and will remain in
interphase until that time arrives.
MEIOSIS
Review questions
•1.Define a cell.
•2.Draw and a label a diagram to illustrate the structure of a
cell
•3.Name three cell organelles and state their function
•4.Describe three ways through which substances move across
the cell membrane
•5.Describe four steps of mitosis