2101CV301 Module 2 02 Shallow Foundation

Building Construction & Materials
(2101CV031)
Module 2:
Foundations
Part 2: Shallow Foundations
Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara

Department of Civil Engineering
Darshan University, Rajkot
dhaval.jalalpara@darshan.ac.in
+917405239039
Syllabus
Sr.
No.
Content
Building Materials
1 Introduction, Properties and Classification of Materials: bricks, blocks, building stones, lime, cement, timber, sand,
aggregate, mortar, concrete, tar, bitumen and asphalt, glass, flooring materials, ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals.
Foundations
Subsurface Investigation
Shallow Foundation:
2
Necessity, Types, setting out, excavation, construction, failures of foundation, and remedial measures.
Deep Foundation:
Pile Foundation: Introduction, uses, selection of pile, types of piles.
Building Construction
Stone masonry: Technical terms, joints, Classification of Stone masonry
Brick masonry: Technical terms, bonds in brick work, constituents of brick-clay
Other Masonry: Composite masonry, Hollow blocks masonry, Partition Wall, Cavity walls
3 Lintels & arches: Lintels - types, construction. Arches - technical terms, types, construction
Wall Finishes: Plastering, pointing and painting
Plain and Reinforced Concrete Construction Pre-cast and cast-in-situ Construction, Form work for R.C.C. Wall, slab, Beam
and
Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara #  Unit 2 – Building Construction & Materials 2
Syllabus
Sr.
No.
Content
Other Building Components
Doors: Location, technical terms, size, types, construction, suitability.
Windows: Factors affecting selection of size, shape, location and no. of windows, types, construction, suitability, fixtures
and fastenings, Ventilators.
Stairs and Staircases: Definition, technical terms, types of steps, classification, stair design/planning, elevators, escalators.
4
Roofs and Roof Coverings: Introduction, requirements of good roof technical terms, classification, types of roof coverings
for
pitched roof. A.C. sheet roofs - fixing of A.C. sheets, G.I. Sheets roofs, slates, flat roof - advantages, dis-advantages, types
of flat
terraced roofing.
Special Treatments
5 Fire resistant, water resistant, thermal insulation, acoustical construction and anti-termite treatment, HVAC & MEP System,
Timbering in Trenches, Shoring, Underpinning.

Reference Books:
1. Building Construction by B. C. Punamia
2. Building Construction by S. C. Rangwala
3. Building Construction by Gurucharan Singh
4. Heavy Construction by Vazirani & Chandola
5. Building Construction by Sushil Kumar
6. Building Construction by P.C Varghese,Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi
7. Hand book of Heavy construction: O’Brien, Havers & Stubb
8. Bureau of Indian Standard

Foundation

Foundation
Shallow Foundation Deep Foundation
Foundation which is placed near the surface of Foundation which is placed at a greater depth or
the earth or transfers the loads at shallow depth transfers the loads to deep strata is called the
is called the shallow foundation. deep foundation.
The depth of shallow foundation is generally The depth of foundation is greater than 3
about 3 meters or the depth of foundation is less meters known as deep foundation
than the footing with.
A shallow foundation is cheaper. Deep foundations are generally more expensive
than shallow foundations.
Shallow foundations are easier to construct. The construction process of a deep foundation
is more complex.
Not suitable in case of water table at shallow Suitable for any type condition
depth
Construction materials are available, less labor is Foundation can be provided at a greater depth,
needed, Provides lateral support and resists uplift,
construction procedure is simple at an effective when foundation at shallow depth is
affordable cost, etc. not possible,
can carry a huge load, etc.
Shallow Foundation
 Topics to be covered
 Introduction
 Types
 Setting out and excavation
 Construction
 Failures of foundation
 Remedial measures

Shallow Foundation
 What is Shallow Foundation ?
 A foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or less than its width.
 Also known as “Open Foundation”.
 Footing is lowermost portion of it which is in direct contact with the soil and distributes the
load to soil.

Types of Shallow foundation
Shallow
foundation
Spread Strap Raft/Mat Combined

Footing Footing Footing Footing
Strip Isolated Grillage Rectangular Trapezoidal

Footing footing foundation

Shallow Foundation
1. Spread Footing
 The spread footing transmits and distributes the load from structure over the larger area of soil
beneath it for providing greater stability.
 Spread footing has very less risk of the failure as compared to other types of footing.
 Spread footing increases the life of the buildings by controlling the damage in the structures.
 Spread footing has number of points of contact with the structure and it will be able to provide
support to the structure continuously.
 Spread footing is easy to provide in the building structures.

Shallow Foundation
a) Strip footing
 These are generally adopted for load bearing wall, as it provides continuous longitudinal
bearing.
 As so it is called Strip Footing. These may be simple or stepped.
 Whenever wall carries light load, small width of footing required , in which is simple footing can
be provided.
 No offsets are provided and wall directly rest on footing.
 Whereas, load on wall are heavy and SBC of soil is low, large base area is required to transfer
the load safely.
 Here, stepped footing is needed.

Shallow Foundation

Shallow Foundation
 Generally, thickness of footing(in case of simple) is around 150 mm and outward project of bed
from wall is kept nearly equal to thickness of wall on either side.
 While in case of Stepped footing width of footing is calculated based on thumb rule T=(2t + 30)
mm where t is thickness of wall.
 Typical spread (wall) footing for 20 cm, 30 cm, 40 cm walls: In next slide:

Shallow Foundation

Shallow Foundation
b) Isolated footing for Column
 These are provided to transfer the load of individual column to soil safely.
 These are generally made from Reinforced Cement Concrete.
 The footing may be simple, sloped or stepped, depending on the requirement of load to be
transferred and bearing capacity of soil.
 The shape of footing may be square, rectangular or circular in plan.
 When heavy load are to transferred and spacing of column is less, isolated footing is replaced
by combined footing.

Isolated footing for Column
Slopped column footing
Single column footing
Stepped column footing

Shallow Foundation
c) Grillage foundation
 It is special type of isolated footing which is provided for steel stanchion especially where is
soil bearing capacity is poor.
 Depth is generally 1 to 1.5m.
 Load is transferred to very large area by joist (generally, I – section ISHB) or tier of joists, each
tier being placed at right angles to above it.
 It is of two types
1. Steel Grillage Foundation
2. Timber Grillage Foundation

Steel Grillage Foundation

 Steel grillage foundation consists of steel joists or beams (Rolled steel Joists - RSJ) which are
provided in single or double tiers.
 In case of double tier grillage, the top tier is laid at right angles to the bottom tier.
 The beams of each tier are held in position by 20mm dia spacer bars with 25mm dia-pipe
separators. The grillage beams are embedded in concrete.
 Minimum clearance of 80mm is kept in order to facilitate placing of concrete.
 However the distance between flanges should not exceed 30 cm or 1.5 times the flange width.
 Here concreting is done to keep the beam in position and protect it form moisture and water
attack.
 Min. concrete cover on outer beam is kept 100mm. Also depth of concrete bed is kept min
150mm.

Timber Grillage Foundation
 This type of foundation is provided for heavily loaded masonry walls or timber columns.
 Used in Waterlogged areas, where the B.C. of soil is very low and where the steel beams may
get corroded due to subsoil water.
 Here, the no concrete is embedded in between the timber joists.
 Bottom layer of timber planks of size 20 to 30 cm wide and 5 to 7.5 cm thick is laid, side by
side; without any gap between them.
 Over this platform, a tier of wooden beams, 15 x 10 cm in size, spaced at right angles.
 The timber post is then vertically to this timber beam.

Timber Grillage Foundation
Timber Grillage
Foundation

Shallow Foundation
2. Combined Footing
 When a common footing is provided for two or more columns, it is known as combined footing.
 These are generally provided under following circumstances:
 When are columns are very near and their individual footings overlap each other.
 When SBC of soil is less and requiring more area, if isolated footing is provided.
 When end columns are located near property line and its isolated footing projects beyond
the property line.
 The footing maybe rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.

Shallow Foundation
 Combined Footing

Shallow Foundation

Shallow Foundation
 The aim of providing combined footing is to get uniform pressure distribution under the
footing.
 But, while using this type of footing, one should keep in mind that the Centre of Gravity of
footing area should coincide with the Centre of Gravity of Combined loads from columns.
 Also when columns located at property line carries heavier load, then trapezoidal footing
must provided to achieve above mentioned mechanism.
 For rest of ordinary situations, rectangular footing is satisfactory.

Shallow Foundation

Shallow Foundation
3. Strap Footing
 Here, the isolated footing of two or more columns are connected by a beam called STRAP.
 When a column is near or right next to adjacent property line, a square or rectangular footing
concentrically located under the column would extend into the adjoining property, which may
not be permissible. In that case, the strap footing may be provided.
 The strap beam, connecting the spread footing of the two columns, does not remain in contact
with the soil and thus does not transfer any pressure to the soil.
 The function of strap beam is to transfer the load of heavily loaded outer column to the inner
one.
 In doing so, the strap beam is subjected to bending moment and shear force and it should be
designed to withstand these.

Shallow Foundation

Shallow Foundation

Shallow Foundation

Shallow Foundation
4. Raft / Mat Footing
 A raft or mat is a combined footing, which covers the entire area below the whole building or
structure and supports all the walls and columns.
 A raft foundation is preferred in the following situation:
1) When the allowable soil pressure is low or the building loads are heavy, the use of spread
footings would cover more than one-half of the area and it may prove more economical to
use mat or raft foundation.
2) Used where soil contains compressible lenses so that the differential settlement would be
difficult to control
3) It also needed to reduce settlement on highly compressible soils, by making the weight of the
structure and raft approximately equal to the weight of the soil excavated.

Flat Plate Type Raft Footing

Shallow Foundation
 Raft / Mat Footing
 It consists of thick reinforced concrete slab covering the entire area of the bottom of the
building or structure like a floor.
 The slab is reinforced with bars running at right angles to each other both near the bottom and
top face of the slab.
 Sometimes, it is necessary to carry the excessive column load by an arrangement of inverted
main beams and secondary beams, cast monolithically with the raft slab.
 The raft slab generally projects for a distance of 30 to 45 cm on all the sides of the outer walls
of the structure and as such the area of excavation is slightly more than the area of the building
or structure itself.
 The excavation is made to the required depth and the entire excavated are is well consolidated.
 This surface, when dry, provides the base upon which the raft-slab is laid.
 All the precautions necessary during R.C. Construction should be taken and further
construction is started only after the proper curing of the raft.
Raft with tie/two way Beam

Raft with tie/two way Beam

Eccentrically Loaded Column
 Special case of isolated footing
where the footing is subjected to
eccentric loading.
 Here the total pressure intensity is

equal to sum of central point load
and bending moment generated
due to central point load.

Eccentrically Loaded Column
 Let w1= superimposed load, including the weight of wall,
per unit length
= Weight of foundation
W = Resultant load on the base
=
=
=

Foundation in black cotton soil
 Foundation in black cotton soil
 It’s dangerous due to volumetric change of this type of soil.
 Due to fine clay particles & highly sensitive to water;
 when Soil getting wet, it swell excessively and then
 when Soil getting dry , it shrink excessively.
 Resulting of alternate swelling and shrinkage is differential settlement of building and

formation of crack having sometimes 15 to 20 cm wide & 2.5 to 4 m deep

 Precautions to make foundation
 The minimum depth of foundation is 1.5 m.
 In case depth of soil does not exceed to 1.5 m, soil layer should replaced or removed.
 The foundation concrete or masonry should not direct contact with the black cotton soil.
This can be done by making wider and deeper trenches for foundation and filling the sand
or moorum on either sides and nearly 30 cm below the foundation.
 Which is well watered and rammed and then foundation concrete should be provided.
 Construction done during dry season
 External wall should be provided at G.L., so that moisture does not enter in foundation
during monsoon.

 Types of foundation in black cotton soil
1) Strip or pad foundation
2) pier foundation
3) Under reamed pile foundation

• When the swelling

pressures are high, the
alternate layers of
moorum and sand are
provided, which acts as a
spring and can compress
or expand along with the
sub-soil movements.
[Fig. b]


 Under reamed pile foundation
Pier foundation

Setting out of Foundation Trenches
 It is process of laying and marking of excavation lines and centre line on the ground.
 Once foundation is designed, layout plan is prepared.
 For setting out the foundation of small buildings, centre line of longest outer wall is first
marked on the ground.




Excavation of trenches
 Trenches marked by as per layout plan can be excavated manually by hand operated
instruments or by mechanized equipment
 Hand operated instruments includes spade, pick axe, crow bar, sledge hammer, boning rod, etc.
 On the other hand, mechanized equipment like power shovel and trenchers can be used for
speedier excavation.
 Power shovel can be used dig trenches up to width of 1.7m.
 Trenchers can be used for width up to 1.5m and depth 5m.

Excavation of trenches
 Hand Instruments
Hammer
Pick axe Boning Rod
Grow bar
Rammer
Kassi or phawrah

Mechanized Equipment

Trencher

Trenching Process

Failure of Foundation
 Foundation may fail due to one or combination of any of following reasons.
1. Unequal settlement of subsoil
2. Unequal settlement of masonry
3. Sub soil moisture
4. Lateral pressure on walls
5. Lateral movement of sub soil
6. Weathering of sub soil
7. Atmospheric conditions

1. Unequal settlement of Sub Soil
 It may lead to cracks and rotation.
 Settlement occur due to
1. Non uniform nature of sub soil
2. Unequal load distribution on footing
3. Eccentric loading.
Measure to avoid such situation
1. Resting foundation on rigid strata.
2. Proper design of base of footing, so that it can resist the cracking
3. Limiting the pressure in the soil
4. Avoid eccentric loading up to maximum extent

Types of settlement

Settlement of sub soil

2. Unequal settlement of masonry
 This implies to masonry in between the footing which is rises up to the ground level especially
in case of load bearing wall masonry.
 This masonry as usual have mortar joints which is liable to shrink or compress which leads to
settlement.
 This can be prevented by
1. Using thin mortar joints with proper strength and workmanship should be checked for same
on site.
2. Restricting the rate of progress to 1m per day if lime mortar is used and 1.5m if cement
mortar is used.

3. Sub soil moisture movement
 This specially occurs in case of cohesive soils, where the subsoil water level fluctuates.
 Due rising/falling of sub soil water, swelling/shrinkage occurs in sub soil leading to differential
settlement of foundation resting on it.
 It may be dangerous in expansive soil as if swelling pressure exceeds the shear strength of
soil, heaving of soil starts which results in failure of foundation.
 For this special measurement are taken to control ground water.

 Sub soil moisture movement

4. Lateral pressure on the wall
 If the wall transmitting load is subjected to lateral pressure or thrust from a pitched roof or
arch or due to wind action, then
 It may subjected to moment which ultimately transferred to foundation.
 If foundation is not designed for such situation, then it may fail in overturning or due to
generation of tensile stress on one side and high compressive stresses on the other side of the
footing.

5. Lateral movement of Sub soil
 This is applicable to very soft soil which are liable to move out or squeeze out laterally under
vertical loads, specially at locations where the ground is sloping.
 Such a situation may also arise in granular soils where a big pit is excavated in the near vicinity
of the foundation.

Weathering of sub soil
6. Weathering of sub soil due to trees and shrubs
 This happens when the small trees, shrubs are grown near to foundation.
 Roots of these plants can absorb moisture from soil and resulting in shrinkage and
compression of soil due which there is settlement of soil.

Weathering of sub soil

Atmospheric actions
7. Atmospheric actions
 Behaviour of foundation is largely affected by weathering agents like sun, wind and rains, etc.
 If the depth of foundation is shallow, moisture movements due to rains or drought may cause
trouble.
 If the building lies in low lying area, foundation may even scoured.
 Also if water remains stagnant near foundation, it will create dampness which can spread over
wall.
 Hence it is always recommended to provide suitable plinth protection along the external walls
by:
1. Filling back the foundation trenches with good soil and compacting it.
2. Providing gentle slope away from the wall
3. Providing narrow, sloping strip of impervious material along the exterior walls.

Atmospheric actions


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Building Construction & Materials

Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara

Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara #  Unit 2 – Building Construction & Materials 3

Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara #  Unit 2 – Building Construction & Materials 4

Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara #  Unit 2 – Building Construction & Materials 5

 Setting out and excavation

Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara #  Unit 2 – Building Construction & Materials 7

 A foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or less than its width.

 Also known as “Open Foundation”.

Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara #  Unit 2 – Building Construction & Materials 8

Spread Strap Raft/Mat Combined

Strip Isolated Grillage Rectangular Trapezoidal

Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara #  Unit 2 – Building Construction & Materials 9

Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara #  Unit 2 – Building Construction & Materials 10

 As so it is called Strip Footing. These may be simple or stepped.

 No offsets are provided and wall directly rest on footing.

 Here, stepped footing is needed.

Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara #  Unit 2 – Building Construction & Materials 12

Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara #  Unit 2 – Building Construction & Materials 13

Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara #  Unit 2 – Building Construction & Materials 14

 These are generally made from Reinforced Cement Concrete.

 The shape of footing may be square, rectangular or circular in plan.

Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara #  Unit 2 – Building Construction & Materials 15

Slopped column footing

Single column footing

Stepped column footing

Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara #  Unit 2 – Building Construction & Materials 16

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 Here, the no concrete is embedded in between the timber joists.

 The timber post is then vertically to this timber beam.

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 Here the total pressure intensity is

Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara #  Unit 2 – Building Construction & Materials 37

Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara #  Unit 2 – Building Construction & Materials 38

 when Soil getting wet, it swell excessively and then

 when Soil getting dry , it shrink excessively.

 Resulting of alternate swelling and shrinkage is differential settlement of building and

Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara #  Unit 2 – Building Construction & Materials 39

 The minimum depth of foundation is 1.5 m.

Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara #  Unit 2 – Building Construction & Materials 40

Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara #  Unit 2 – Building Construction & Materials 41

• When the swelling

Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara #  Unit 2 – Building Construction & Materials 42

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Prof. Dhaval A. Jalalpara #  Unit 2 – Building Construction & Materials 44

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