CAD/CAM/CIM

 UNIT – I 15 Periods
Computer Aided Design:
Computer Aided Design (CAD)- role of Computer in Design Process, Benefits of CAD, Graphic Primitives- Line and Circle, Line (DDA,
Bresenham’s) and Circle (Mid-Point) Drawing Algorithms, Geometrical Transformations (2D & 3D)-Translation, Scaling, Rotation.
Geometric Modelling- Wire Frame Entities, Wire Frame Modelling, Parametric Representation of Bezier, Cubic Spline and B-Spline Curves,
Surface Entities, Surface Modeling, Solid Entities, Solid Modeling – Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG), Boundary Representation (B-Rep),
Product Data Exchange-Types of Translators, IGES, Introduction to Finite Element Modelling - Mesh Generation, Types and Techniques of
Simulation in Manufacturing.
 
UNIT –II 15 Periods
Computer Aided Planning and Control:
Group Technology - Part Families, Parts Classification and Coding Systems, OPITZ and MICLASS coding, Computer Aided Process Planning
(CAPP) – Retrieval and Generative Process Planning Systems, Benefits of CAPP.
Computer Integrated Production Management System – Master Production Schedule, Capacity Planning, Cost Planning and Control, Shop Floor
Control, Factory Data Collection System, Inventory Management - Material Requirement Planning (MRP), Introduction to Manufacturing
Resource Planning (MRP-II) and Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP).
 
UNIT – III 15 Periods
Computer Aided Process Monitoring and Quality Control:
Computer Process Interfacing - Monitoring, Types of Production Monitoring Systems, Structure
Model of Manufacturing Process, Process Control and Strategies, Direct Digital Control Supervisory Computer Control.
Computer Aided Quality Control (CAQC) - Contact Inspection Methods – Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM), Stylus Profilometer- Optical
Inspection Methods, Non Contact Inspection Methods, Machine Vision – Image Processing and Analysis, Computer Aided Testing, Integration
of CAQC with CAD/CAM.
 
UNIT – IV 15 Periods
Computer Integrated Manufacturing:
Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)- Hardware and Software, Benefits, Data Base Requirements of CIM, Data Base Models, Types of
Manufacturing Systems - Single Stations, Multi-Station Cells, Production Lines.
Over View and Principles of Materials Handling, Material Transport Systems - Automated Guided Vehicles (AGV), Monorails and other Rails,
Conveyors, Cranes and Hoists, Automated Storage and Retrieval System (AS & RS), Robots and its Applications in CIM, Direct and Distributed
Numerical Control System, Cellular and Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS), Manufacturing Strategies - Introduction to Lean, Agile, Just in
Time and Collaborative Manufacturing, Artificial Intelligence and Expert System in CIM. Industry 4.0-Introduction to the industrial internet of
things- smart factories.

 BOOKS:
Groover M and Zimmers E, "CAD/CAM: Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing", Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 2003.
Ibrahim Zeid, Sivasubramanian R, CAD/CAM: Theory and Practice, McGraw-Hill education (India) Private Limited, New Delhi, 2009 1
  UNIT1 - COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

1. Role of computers in design.

2. Graphic Primitives: Line & circle algorithms

3. Geometric Transformations : Translation, scaling & rotation.

4. Geometric modeling: -
1.wire frame: entities, modeling, curve representation.
2. surface: entities, modeling.
3. solid modeling: CSG, B-REP.

5. Product data exchange & Introduction to FEM.

3
 What is CAD/CAM?
 CAD/CAM (computer-aided design and computer-aided
manufacturing) refers to computer software that is used to both design
and manufacture products.

 CAD - use of computer technology - design and design

documentation.

 CAM software uses the models and assemblies created in CAD

software to generate tool paths that drive the machines that turn the
designs into physical parts.

 CAD/CAM applications are used specifically for CNC machining.

 CAD/CAM software is used for machining of prototypes and finished

parts.

4
 Computer Aided Design (CAD)
 CAD is the integration of computer science techniques for engineering
design.
 CAD is also defined as the use of computer systems to assist in the
Creation
Modification
Analysis or optimization of a design.

 The computer system consist of the hardware and software to

perform the design functions.

 The CAD hardware includes

Workstations (Graphic display terminal, CPU)
Mouse, Keyboards, plot pen, printers, plotters etc.,

 The CAD software consists of

Computer programs to facilitate the engineering functions
Examples - Autocad, Creo, Ansys & Adams.

5
 2D/3D drafting.

 3D modelling
 An aid to visualization.
 Represents curves and surfaces
and solids.

Three aspects of CAD

1. Modelling
2. Display/Visualization
3. Application
1. Stress analysis (FEA)
2. CAD/CAM integration

6
 Interactive Computer Graphics (ICG)
 Modern CAD systems are based on ICG.

 ICG denotes a user oriented system in which the computer is

employed to create, transform and display data in the form of
pictures or symbols.

 The user in the design system is the designer who communicates

data and commands to the computer through any of several input
devices.

 The computer communicates with the user via a Display

Screen.

7
 Reason for implementing CAD
 To increase the productivity of the designer
 Reduces the time required to synthesize, analyze and
document the design.

 To improve the quality of design

 Thorough engineering analysis within a short time.
 Design errors are also reduced.

 To improve communications through documentation:

 Better Engineering drawings
 More standardization in the drawings
 Better documentation of the design
 Fewer drawing errors.

 To create a database for manufacturing:

 Geometry and dimension of components
 Bill of materials
 Used in CNC programming, programming of robots.
8
 Design Process

 Design is an original solution to a

problem.

 Design process is the pattern of

activities that is followed by the
designer in arriving at the solution of
a technological problem.

 Models of the design process

 Shigley
 Pahl
 Beitz
 Ohsuga
 Earle

9
 Shigley- Design Process

 Shigley model involves six basic steps:

10
 Cont..
1. Recognition of need:
It involves the realization by someone that a problem exists for which
some feasible solution is to be found.

 Historical Information
 Collected from the literature,
marketing surveys.
 This should be able to answer
questions like
 The current technology
 Existing solutions

 Requirement Specification
 Clear definition of the requirements is specified.
 This helps in understanding the product from the current practices and
manufacturing resources of the plant.

 Market forces
 Consider the various market forces that will affect the product in one
way or the other.
11
 General solutions
 Specify general solution, which will be broad and would not
contain too many details.
 This can be done by resorting to past designs, engineering
standards, technical reports, handbooks, patterns.
 This helps in its further evaluation and refinement at a later
stage.

2. Definition of problem
 It involves a thorough specification of the item to be
designed.
 The specification include functional and physical
characteristics, cost, quality, performance, etc.

3. Synthesis
 During this phase various preliminary ideas are developed
through research of similar products or designs in use.
12
4. Analysis and optimization:
 The preliminary designs are subjected to the appropriate
analysis to determine their suitability for the specified design
constraints.

 If these designs fail to satisfy the constraints, they are then

redesigned or modified on the basis of the feedback from the
analysis.

5. Evaluation:
 The evaluation of the design against the specifications
established during the problem definition phase.

 This often requires the fabrication and testing of a prototype

model to evaluate operating performance quality, reliability, etc.

6. Presentation:
 It is the final phase, which includes documentation of the design
through drawings, material specifications, assembly lists and so
on. 13
Application of Computers to the Design Process

14
Various Design Tasks by CAD
1. Geometric Modeling
2. Engineering Analysis
3. Design Review and Evaluation
4. Automated Drafting

1. Geometric modeling
 It deals with the mathematical description of the geometry of
an object.

 Using the description the image is displayed and

manipulated on a graphics terminal.

 Softwares are used to provide the geometric modeling.

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Three types of commands in Geometric modeling

Basic Geometric elements generates from:

 Points, Lines, Circles.

 Scaling, Rotation, transformations.

 Assembly to join various elements.

Different methods of Representing the object in Geometric

modeling

 Wire Frame Modeling

Displayed by interconnected lines.

 Solid Modeling
16
Three types wire frame modeling

2D representation flat object

21/2D no side wall details
3D more complex geometry.

Hidden line removal

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 Wire frame modeling

 3D wire frame inadequate for

complicated shapes.

 The CAD system have automatic

hidden line removal feature.

Solid Modeling
 Advance method of geometric modeling
in three dimensions.

 It can be seen from various directions

and in various views.

 CAD systems provide colour graphics

capability.

 Colour images useful in assembly,

dimensioning. 18
2. ENGINEERING ANALYSIS
 Stress-strain calculations
 Heat transfer computations

Commercial general purpose programs can be used to perform the

analysis.
Analysis of mass properties
 Surface area
 Weight
 Volume
 Centre of gravity and moment of inertia

Finite Element Analysis

 Object is divided into a large number of finite elements.
Usually Rectangular or Triangular shapes
 Determining the interrelating behaviors of all the nodes in the system,
the behaviour of the entire object can be assessed.
 Stress strain analysis, heat transfer.

19
Finite Element Analysis of a Component 20
3. DESIGN REVIEW AND EVALUATION

 The designer can check the accuracy of the design to reduce the
dimensioning errors.

 The designer can zoom in on part design details for close scrutiny.

 Checking the assembly of the components.

 Kinematics-Animate the motion of components and linkages.

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4. AUTOMATED DRAFTING
 Creation of hardcopy engineering drawings directly from CAD data
base.

 It increases productivity five times over manual drafting.

 Automatic dimensioning, crosshatched areas, scaling of the drawing

 Sectional views and enlarged views of particular part details.

 Rotating the part to view the image

Oblique Isometric Perspective 22

Engineering Drawing with four views
23
CREATING THE MANUFACTURING DATA BASE

 CAD system develops the data base needed to manufacture the

product.

 In conventional manufacturing
Engineering drawing prepared by design draftsmen and used by
manufacturing engineer to develop the process plan.

 In integrated CAD/CAM system

Direct link established between product design and
manufacturing.

 Manufacturing data base is an integrated CAD/CAM data base.

 It includes all the data on the product generated during design

Geometry data, Bill of materials, Part lists, Material specifications
and additional data required for manufacturing.

24
CAD/ CAM data base

25
Benefits of computer aided design

1. Productivity improvement in design

2. Shorter lead time

3. Design Analysis

4. Fewer design errors

5. Greater accuracy in design calculations

6. Standardization of design, drafting and documentation

procedure

7. Drawings are more understandable

26
 Improvement in visualization of images
8. Improved Procedures for engineering changes
 Control and implementation of engineering changes is
significantly improved with CAD.
 Data base can be checked against new information.
 Easy to compare with the current design.

27
Benefits in Manufacturing

 Tool and fixture design for manufacturing

 Numerical control part programming

 Computer aided process planning

 Assembly lists for production

 Computer aided inspection

 Robotics planning

 Group Technology

 Shorter manufacturing lead times through better

scheduling
28
 The Graphic Output Primitives
 Graphics programming packages provide functions to describe a scene
in terms of the basic geometric structures, as referred to as output
primitives.

 Complex structures formed by group set of output primitives.

 Points and straight line segments are the simplest geometric

components of picture.

A drawing is created by an assembly of

 Point
 Line
 Arc
 Circle
 Ellipse
 Spline
 Polygon
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 Pixels
 In computer graphics, pictures or graphics objects are presented as a
collection of discrete picture elements (rows and columns) called
pixels.

 The pixel is the intersection area of the rows and columns (smallest
addressable screen element).

 The control is achieved by setting the intensity and colour of the pixel.
 To display point P1 (4.2, 3.8) and
point P2 (4.8, 3.1), P1 and P2 are
represented by only one pixel
(4,3) .

 In general, a point is represented

by the integer part of X and
integer part of Y, i.e., (int (X), int
(Y)).
Pixel display area of 6 x 530
 Rasterization and Scan conversion
 The special procedures determine which pixel will provide the best
approximation to the desired picture or graphics object.

 The process of determining the appropriate pixels for representing

picture or graphics object is known as rasterization.

 The process of representing continuous picture or graphics object as

a collection of discrete pixels is called scan conversion.
 Converting a line vector into its
equivalent pixel positions involves a large
amount of computation.

 Each drawing consists of a large amount of

vectors to be displayed.

 Hence, there is a need to have a simplified

method by which these could be done at a
faster rate with little computing overhead.
31
 Line Drawing
 Line drawing is accomplished by calculating intermediate positions
along the line of path between two specified endpoint positions.

 An output device is then directed to fill in these positions between

the endpoints.

 For a raster display, the line colour (intensity) is then loaded into the
frame buffer at the corresponding pixel coordinates.

 A computed line position of (10.48, 20.51) would be converted to pixel

position (10, 21).

 This rounding of coordinate values to integers causes lines to be

displayed with a stairstep appearance.

32
                                 
Line - Slope
 The slope of a line is the rise over the run, or the change in y divided by the
change in x . To find the slope of a line, pick any two points on the line.

 Then subtract their x-coordinates and subtract their y-coordinates in the

same order.

 Divide the difference of the y -coordinates by the difference of the x -

coordinates:

33
Example : Find the slope of the line which passes through the points (2,
5) and (0, 1) :

This means that every time x increases

by 1 (anywhere on the line), y increase
by 2 , and whenever x decreases by
1, y decreases by 2 .

34
Positive Slope
If a line has a positive slope (i.e. m > 0 ), then y always increases
when x increases and y always decreases when x decreases. Thus, the graph
of the line starts at the bottom left and goes towards the top right.

Negative Slope
Negative slope implies that y always
decreases when x increases and y always
increases when x decreases.

Here is an example of a graph with

negative slope:

Thus, as x increases by 3 , y decreases by 4 , and

as x decreases by 3 , y increases by 4 .

35
 Line Drawing Algorithm- Analog Devices
 The Cartesian slope intercept equation for a straight line is
Y = m. x + b
‘m’ representing the slope of the line, b as the y intercept.
y2  y1 y
m  b  y1  m.x1
x2  x1 x
 For any given x interval Δx along a line, the
corresponding y interval Δy can be computed from the
equation
y  mx

Similarly for Δx y
x 
m
If m  1 Vertical deflection is calculated from y  mx
If m  1 Horizontal deflection is calculated from x  y
m
If m  1 x  y Smooth line is generated between the endpoints.
36
 Line Drawing Algorithm- Raster System
 On raster systems, lines are plotted
with pixels and step sizes in the
horizontal and vertical directions are
constrained by pixel separations.

 We must sample a line at discrete

positions and determine the nearest
pixel to the line at each sampled
positions.

Scan conversion line algorithms

1. Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) algorithm

2. Bresenham’s algorithm

37
Digital Differential Analyser (DDA) Algorithm/ Vector Algorithm
 DDA is one of the incremental scan conversion methods.

 This approach is characterized by calculating each step using the

results obtained in the previous step.

 In DDA algorithm, either Δx or Δy, which ever is larger is chosen as

one raster unit.

38
 Digital Differential Analyser (DDA) Algorithm/ Vector
Algorithm
DDA is a scan conversion line algorithm based
on calculating either Δx or Δy.
Case 1: Line with positive slope
If m  1 sample at unit x intervals (Δx = 1)
yk 1  yk  m
Where ‘k’ is integer starting from 1, for the
first point and increases by 1 until the final
endpoint is reached.
‘m’ can be any real number between 0 and 1
The calculated ‘y’ values must be rounded to the nearest integer.
If m  1 sample at unit ‘y’ intervals (Δy = 1)
1
xk 1  xk 
m

39
Case 2: Line with negative slope

If m 1 Δx = -1 yk 1  yk  m
1
m 1 xk 1  xk 
If Δy = -1 m
 The DDA algorithm is a faster method for calculating pixel
positions than the direct use of line equation.

 Appropriate increments are applied in x and y direction to step to

pixel positions along the line path.

40
To draw a straight line from connecting two points (2, 7) and (15,10)

X1 = 2, X2 = 15 Δx=X2 - X1 = 13
Y1 = 7, Y2 = 10 Δy= (Y2 - Y1) = 3
m= Δy/Δx = 3/13 =0.23

m  1 sample at unit x intervals (Δx = 1)

yk 1  yk  m
The initials values of X and Y are
X = 2.5 Y = 7.5

Pixel values

Plotting a line 41
 x1=0 x2=6 Δx = x2-x1= 6-0 = 6
y1=0 y2=7 Δy = y2-y1 = 7-0 = 7

m=Δy/ Δx=7/6=1.16, m>1

Therefore , Δy=1
xk 1  xk  1/ m  0  1/1.16  0.862
x y
0.5 0.5
1.362 1.5
2.224 2.5
3.086 3.5
3.948 4.5
4.81 5.5
5.672 6.5
6.534 7.5 42
 x1=0 x2=-5 Δx = x2-x1= -5-0 = -5
y1=0 y2=5 Δy = y2-y1 = 5-0 = 5

m= Δy/ Δx = 5/-5 = -1, m<1

Therefore , Δx = -1
yk 1  yk  m
x y
-0.5 0.5
-1.5 1.5
-2.5 2.5
-3.5 3.5
-4.5 4.5
-5.5 5.5

43
 Drawbacks of DDA Algorithm

 Although DDA is fast, the accumulation of round off error in

successive additions of floating point increment, however can cause
the calculated pixel positions to drift away from the line path for
long line segments.

 Floating point operations and rounding off in DDA is time

consuming.

 These drawbacks have been overcome in Bresenham’s line drawing

algorithm.

44
 Bresenham’s Line Algorithm
 An accurate and efficient raster line
generating algorithm.

 Scan converts lines using only incremental

integer calculations.

 We need to decide which of two possible

pixel positions is closer to the line path at
each sample step.

 Determine the next sample position whether

to plot the pixel at position (11,11) or the one
at (11,12).

 This is decided by calculating the difference

between the separations of the two pixel
positions from the actual line path.
45
 For Positive slope m 1
 Pixel positions along a line path are then
determined by sampling at unit x intervals.

 Starting from the left end point (x0 , y0) of a

given line and step to each successive x position
and plot the pixel whose scan line y value is
closest to the line path.

 Assuming that the pixel at (xk, yk) is determined,

we need to decide which pixel to plot in column
xk+1.

 Our choices are the pixels at positions (xk+1, yk)

and (xk+1, yk+1).

 At sampling position xk+1, we label vertical

separations from the line path as d1 and d2.
The y coordinate on the line at pixel column position xk+1 is calculated as

y  m  xk  1  b
46
 y  m  xk  1  b
d1  y  yk
 m  xk  1  b  yk

d 2   yk  1  y
  yk  1  m  xk  1  b
The difference between these two separations is

d1  d 2  2m  xk  1  2 yk  2b  1
A decision parameter pk for the kth step in the line algorithm can be obtained
by rearranging the above equation and substituting m= Δy/ Δx.

pk  x  d1  d 2 
Pk  2y  xk  2x  yk  2y  x(2b  1)
47
Pk  2y  xk  2x  yk  2y  x(2b  1)
pk  2y  xk  2x  yk  c
Where C is C  2y  x(2b  1)

Parameter c is constant and has the value 2y  x  2b  1 which is

independent of pixel position and will be eliminated from the
calculations for pk.

If the pixel at yk is closer to the line path than the pixel at yk+1 (that is,
d1<d2), then decision parameter pk is negative.

In that case, we plot the lower pixel; otherwise we plot the upper pixel.

At step k+1, the decision parameter is evaluated from

pk 1  2y  xk 1  2x  yk 1  c
48
 pk  2y  xk  2x  yk  c

pk 1  2y  xk 1  2x  yk 1  c
pk 1  pk  2y ( xk 1  xk )  2x( yk 1  yk )
But, xk+1 is the same as xk+1 so:
pk 1  pk  2y  2x( yk 1  yk )
If pk value negative(lower pixel), yk 1  yk
pk 1  pk  2y  2x( yk  yk )
pk 1  pk  2y
yk 1  yk  1
If pk value positive(upper pixel),
pk 1  pk  2y  2x( yk  1  yk )
pk 1  pk  2y  2x
If |m|>1 then interchange x and y in the above equations. 49
 Bresenham’s Line Drawing Procedure
If m 1

 Input the two line endpoints and store the left endpoint in (x0,y0) .

 Load (x0,y0) into the frame buffer; that is plot the first point.

 Calculate constants Δx, Δy, 2Δy and 2Δy- 2Δx and obtain the starting value
for the initial decision parameter as
p0  2y  x
 At each xk along the line, starting at k=0, perform the following test:
If pk<0, the next point to plot is (xk+1,yk) and
pk 1  pk  2y

 Otherwise, the next point to plot is (xk+1,yk+1) and

pk 1  pk  2y  2x

 Repeat the above step for Δx times.

50
Example
The end points of a line are (20,10) and (30,18). The line has a slope of 0.8 with
Δx = 10, Δy = 8.
m 1
The initial decision parameter has the value
p0 = 2Δy - Δx
= 16– 10 = 6
Pk >1 , therefore the next pixel position is
calculated from
pk 1  pk  2y  2x
When Pk <1 , the next pixel position is
calculated from
pk 1  pk  2y
If pk value negative(lower
pixel).

If pk value positive(upper
pixel).
51
Develop the pixel positions for the straight line joining P1 (10, 20) and
P2 (18, 25)

52
Advantage of Bresenham’s Line Algorithm

 In DDA both integer and floating point calculations are involved.

 No floating point calculations involved in Bresenham’s Line ploting

Algorithm.

 Low computational cost, better than DDA.

53
 Circle Generating Algorithms
A circle is defined as the set of points that are all at a
given distance r from the center position (xc,yc).

It is expressed in Pythagorean theorem in Cartesian

coordinates as
 x  xc    y  yc   r 2
2 2

This equation is used to calculate the position of points

on a circle circumference by stepping along the x axis
in unit steps from xc - r to xc + r and calculating the
corresponding y values at each position as
y  yc  r   xc  x 
2 2

This is not the best method for generating a circle.

It involves considerable computation at each step.

The spacing between plotted pixel position is not

uniform.

54
 Cont…
Another way to eliminate the unequal spacing is to calculate points
along the circular boundary using polar coordinates r and θ.

Expressing circle equation in parametric polar form yields the pair

of equations
x  xc  r cos 
y  yc  r sin 
Display is generated with these equations using a fixed angular step
size, a circle is plotted with equally spaced points along the
circumference.

The step size chosen for θ depends on the application and the display
device.

Larger angular separations along the circumference can be

connected with straight line segments to approximate the circular
path.
55
Computation can be reduced by considering the symmetry of circles.

We can generate the circle section in second quadrant of the xy plane
by noting that the two circle sections are symmetric with respect to the y
axis.

 Circle sections in the third and fourth quadrants can be obtained by

considering symmetry about the x axis.

 There is also symmetry between octants. Circle sections in adjutant

octants are symmetric with respect to the 45 ° line dividing the two
octants.

 The Cartesian equation contain multiplications and square root

calculations, while the parametric equations contain multiplications
and trigonometric calculations.

56
 Bresenham’s Circle Algorithm
 More efficient circle algorithms are based on incremental calculation of
decision parameters, as in the Bresenham line algorithm, which involves
only simple integer operations.

 Bresenham’s line algorithm for raster display is adapted to circle

generation by setting up decision parameters for finding the closest pixel to
the circumference at each sampling step.

 Bresenham’s circle algorithm avoids the

square-root calculations by comparing the
pixel separation distances.

 A method for direct distance comparison is

to test the halfway position between two
pixels to determine if this midpoint is
inside or outside the circle boundary.

57
 Mid Point Circle Algorithm
As in the raster line algorithm, sample at unit intervals and determine the
closest pixel position to the specified circle path at each step.

Radius ‘r’ and screen center position (xc,yc).

The each calculated position (x, y) is moved to its proper screen position by
adding xc to x and yc to y.

Take unit step in the positive x direction over the octant and use a decision
parameter to determine which of the two possible y positions is closer to the
circle path at each step.

Positions in the other seven octants are then obtained by symmetry.

 Circle function for midpoint

f circle  x, y is x 2  y 2  r 2
method

58
The circle function tests are performed for the
midpositions between pixels near the circle
path at each sampling step.

The circle function is the decision parameter

in the midpoint algorithm.

Figure shows the midpoint between the two pixels at sampling position xk+1.

Decision parameter at the midpoint between these two pixels

 1
pk  f circle  xk  1, yk  
 2
 
2
pk   xk  1  yk 
2
1  r2
2

 If pk < 0, this midpoint is inside the circle and the pixel on yk is closer to
the circle boundary.

 Otherwise, the midpoint is outside or on the circle boundary and we select

the pixel on yk-1.
59
Successive decision parameters are obtained using incremental calculations.

 2
2
pk   xk  1  yk  1
2 2
r

 1
pk 1  f circle  xk 1  1, yk 1  
 2
The difference between these two
pk 1  pk  2  xk  1   y 2 k 1  yk2    yk 1  yk   1
The initial decision parameter is obtained by evaluating the circle function at
the start position (x0, y0) = (0, r)

 1
p0  f circle 1, r  
 2
2
 1
 1  r    r2
2
5 
 r
4
p0  1  r

60
 Mid Point Circle Algorithm- Steps
1. Input radius ‘r’ and circle center (xc, yc), and obtain the first point on the
circumference of a circle centered on the origin as
(x0, y0) = (0, r)

2. Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter as

p0  1  r

3. If pk < 0, the next point along the circle is (xk+1, yk) and
pk 1  pk  2  xk  1  1

Otherwise, the next point along the circle is (xk+1, yk -1) and
pk 1  pk  2  xk  1  1  2  yk  1

4. Determine symmetry points in the other seven octants.

5. Move each calculated pixel position (x, y) onto the circular path centered on
(xc, yc) and plot the coordinate values.
x= x +xc, y = y +yc

6. Repeat steps 3 through 5 until x ≥ y. 61

 Example-Midpoint circle algorithm
A circle radius is 10cm, demonstrate the midpoint circle algorithm by
determining positions along the circle in the first quadrant from x=0 to x=y.
The initial value of the decision parameter is p0  1  r  1  10  9
Initial point is (x0,y0) = (0,10), the initial increment terms for calculating the decision
parameters are 2x0 = 0, 2y0 =20.
Pk <0 – Upper pixel selected
Next position
p k 1  p k  2  x k  1   1
p k 1   9  2 x k  2  1   6
If Pk > 0, Lower pixel selected
pk 1  pk  2  xk  1  1  2  yk  1

-3

62
Given a circle of radius r=15cm, determine the pixel positions along the circle
octant using mid point algorithm in the first quadrant from x=0 to x=y

R=15 p0  1  r  1  15  14

Initial point is (x0,y0) = (0,15), the initial increment terms for calculating the decision
parameters are 2x0 = 0, 2y0 =30.
Pk <0
Next position
pk 1  pk  2  xk  1  1
pk 1  14  2 xk  2  1  11

63
 Transformation

 Plays a central role in model construction and viewing

 Used to achieve the effect of different viewing positions and

directions

 Used to create animated files of geometric models to study

their motion

 Commonly used transformations are

TRANSLATION
ROTATION
SCALING

64
 Cont..

 Geometric Transformations are mappings from one coordinate

system onto itself.

 The description of a geometric model of an object can change

within its own model coordinate system (MCS).

 This would imply that the geometric model must undergo motion
relative to its MCS.

 Relative distance between object particles remain constant; i.e.,

the object does not deform during the motion.

 Transformations can be applied directly to the parametric

representations of objects such as points, curves, surfaces and
solids.

 Concatenation or combination of transformations must be

possible 65
 Coordinate System

 Cartesian coordinate system

Euclidean
Homogeneous

 Polar coordinate system

 Cartesian and polar systems are inter transformable.

66
3D Euclidean transformation
( x, y, z )  ( x  x, y  y, z  z )
1 0 0  1 0 0 
 ( x, y, z ) 0 1 0   (x, y, z ) 0 1 0 
0 0 1  0 0 1 
3D Homogeneous transformation
( x , y , z , 1)  ( x   x , y   y , z   z , 1)
 1 0 0 0
 0 1 0 0 
 ( x , y , z , 1) 
 0 0 1 0
 
x y z 1
67
 Transformation of a point

 Transformation can be applied directly to the parametric

representations of objects such as points, curves, surfaces and
solids.
 A point P belongs to a geometric model undergoes a rigid-body
motion, find corresponding point P* in the new position such that
P* = f(P, transformation parameters)
 To implement into graphics software it is expressed in matrix
notation as P*=[T]P
 [T] is the transformation matrix whose elements are functions of
the given transformation parameters.
 The transformation matrix is applicable to both 2D and 3D
graphics applications

68
 Representation of points in matrix form
• In two dimensional coordinate system any point is represented in terms of x
and y coordinates.
• The point (x,y) can be converted into matrix in the following two ways:

• The above two matrices are frequently called position vectors.

• A series of points, each of which is a position vector relative to some
coordinate system, is stored in a computer as a matrix or array of numbers.
• The position of these points is controlled by manipulating the matrix
which defines the points.
• Lines are drawn between the points to generate lines, curves or pictures.

69
 Representation of points in matrix form
• Represent any rectangle in matrix form.
• Let (x1, y1) and (x2,y2) be the opposite vertices of a rectangle.
• Then , the four vertices of the rectangle will be: (x1,y1), (x2, y1),
(x2,y2), (x1,y2).
• Matrix form

70
 TRANSLATION
• Every entity of the geometric model remains parallel to its initial
position, the rigid body transformation of the model is defined as translation.
• Every point on it moves an equal given distance in a given direction
• Translation can be specified by a vector, a unit vector and a distance or two
points that denote the initial and final positions of the model to be translated.

Final position vector P* of a point

P to its initial position vector P
after being translated by a vector d.

P* = P+d

Scalar form for 3-D case

• x* = x+xd
• y* = y+yd
• z* = z+zd
• Translating a curve does not change its tangent vector at any point
71
 TRANSLATION OF A PLANE FIGURE

• This is normally the operation used in

CAD systems as the MOVE command.

72
TRANSLATION- EXAMPLE

73
(1,1) & (2,4) 2units x and 3 units y.

(3,4) & (4,&)

74
 TRANSLATION- EXAMPLE
Translate the outline of a house by (3, -4)

75
 SCALING
 Scaling is used to change, increase or decrease the size of an entity or a
model.
 Point wise scaling can be performed by

 Where [S] is a diagonal scaling matrix.

 In three dimension it is given by

 Can be expanded to give

 The elements sx, sy, sz of the scaling matrix [S] are the scaling factors in
the X, Y, Z directions respectively.
76
 UNIFORM SCALING

 Scaling factors are always positive.

 If the scaling factor are smaller than
1, the geometric model or entity to
which scaling is applied is compressed.
 If the factors are greater than 1, the
model is stretched.
 If the scale factors are equal, that is,
sx=sy=sz=s, the model changes in size
only not in shape. This is the case of
uniform scaling.

 Uniform scaling does not change the slope at

any point.

77
 DIFFERENTIAL SCALING
 Differential scaling occurs when

 Different scaling are applied in

different directions.
 Differential scaling changes
both the size and shape of a
geometric model.

78
 SCALING OF A PLANE FIGURE

X1 Y1
P* = X2 Y2

79
80
81
82
 ROTATION
 Rotation is an important form of geometrical transformation.
 It enables the users to view geometric models from different angles.
 Rotation of a point through an angle θ about x or y or z is sometimes
referred to as rotation about the origin.
 A rotation in the counter clockwise direction is considered as positive.

 The final position of P after

rotation is shown as point P*.

83
  The coordinates of P* are given by:

where

84
(1,1) & (2,4) Rotate 30 degree CCW.

85
Homogeneous Transformation

86
 Concatenated Transformation
 A series of transformations is applied to a geometric model.
 It is also called as combination of transformations.
 Concatenated transformations are simply obtained by multiplying the
[T] matrices of the corresponding individual transformations.

 Where [Ti] are any combination of

 Translation
 Scaling
 Rotation
 Reflection

87
The line has to be rotated 45 degree ccw about point A.

88
89
90
 3D -Transformations
 A 3D object has a three dimensional geometry and therefore it requires
a three dimensional coordinate transformation.
 The scaling and translation transformations are essentially the same as
two dimensional transformations.
 However, the matrix will have a non zero third column.

91
92
93
 Geometric Model
Three types of geometric models
 Wireframe Model
 Surface Model
 Solid Model

 The user construct geometric model by inputting the object data via the
user interface provided by the software.

 CAD/CAM systems have adequate geometric and visualization

attributes.

 Based on these attributes, they are utilized in applications such as

mass property calculations
mechanical analysis
finite element modeling
NC.

94
 Wireframe Entities
Wire frame entities can be divided into analytic and synthetic entities

Analytic entities are :

Points, Lines, Arcs, Circles, fillets, and chamfers, and conics.

Synthetic entities are:

Splines (cubic spline, B-spline), Bezier curves.

Method of defining points:

95
 Wireframe Entities
Method of defining Lines:

Method of defining Arcs and circles:

96
 Wireframe Entities
Method of defining Ellipses and parabolas:

97
 Wireframe Entities
Method of defining Synthetic curves:

Cubic spline Bezier curve

B-Spline curve

98
 Wireframe Model
 A wireframe model -simplest geometric model - represent it
mathematically in the computer.

 It is some times refereed to as an edge representation of the object.

 The word wireframe is related to the fact that one may imagine a wire
that is bent to follow the object edges to generate the model.

 A wire frame model consists of points, lines, arcs and circles, conics
and curves.

 Early wireframe modeling techniques developed in the 1960s were

two dimensional and were designed to automate drafting and
simple NC.

 Later in the early 1970s, the 3D wireframe modeling was introduced.

99
Wireframe Model

100
101
 Wireframe Model
Advantages
 Simple to construct.

 Does not require as much computer time and memory as does surface and
solid modeling.

 Surface algorithms require wireframe entities to generate surfaces.

Disadvantages
 Unambiguous representation of real objects.

 Complex design having many edges become very confusing.

 Lack of information to determine the object profile.

 Both topological and geometrical data are needed to construct wireframe

models while solids require only geometrical data.

 Volume, mass properties, NC tool path generation, cross sectioning are not
possible.
102
 Representation of Curves
 Generally shape representation have two uses
Analytic use.
Synthetic use.
 In Analytical, representation are used analytically to describe shapes
that can be measured.
 In synthetic, the designer interactively creates or modifies a model of
a shape, examining and improving the design until it is acceptable.

103
104
 Synthetic Curves
As the name implies these are artificial curves
 Bezier
 B-Spline
 CUBIC
 etc.

 Analytic curves are usually not sufficient to meet geometric design

requirements of mechanical parts.
 Many products need free-form, or synthetic curved surfaces.
 These curves use a series of control points either interploated or aproximated
It should be controllable by the designer.
Calculation and storage should be easy.
At the same time called as free form curves.

105
Synthetic Curves

Interpolated

Control Points

Approximated

106
 SYNTHETIC CURVES

 Need of synthetic curves in design arises:

 When a curve is represented by a collection of measured

data points and

 When an existing curve must change to meet new design

requirements.

 Data points are called control points for the curve.

 Various continuity requirements can be specified at the data

points to impose degree of smoothness of the resulting curve.

107
 Important properties for designing curves

 Control Points:
Locate points through which the curve must pass or
points that control the curve shape.

 Axis independence:
The shape of an object must not change when the control
points are measured in a different coordinate system.

 Global or local control:

As a designer manipulates a control point, a curve may
change shape only in the region near the control point or
it may change shape throughout.
108
 Variation diminishing property:
 A curve that oscillates about its control points is
usually undesirable.
 Variation diminishing curves tend to smooth out a
sequence of control points.

 Versatility:
 A curve representation that allows a limited variety of
shapes may frustrate a designer.
 The control of a curve representation, often by adding
or removing control points.

 Order of continuity:
 A complex shape is usually not modeled by a single
curve, but by several curves pieced together end to end.
 When creating joints, the designer often wants to control
the order of continuity at the joint.
109
Position Continuity
 Zero order continuity (C0) yields a position continuous curve
(same end point).
Mid-points are connected

1 2
3

Connected (C0 continuity)

110
Slope Continuity
Both curves have the same first
derivative value at the connection
point. At the same time position
continuity is also attained.

Continuous
tangent

Tangent continuity (C1 continuity)

111
Curvature Continuity
Both curves have the same second derivative value at the connection point.
At the same time position and slope continuity is also attained.

1
2

Continuous
curvature

Curvature continuity (C2 continuity)

112
 Most commonly used Synthetic Curves
• Cubic Spline
– It passes through the control points.

– It has only upto C1 continuity.

• Bezier Curve
– It does not pass through the control points but only approximates the trend.

– It also has only upto C1 continuity.

• B-Spline Curve
– It is also most generally an approximator.

– It has upto C2 continuity.

113
 Cubic Spline
 A cubic spline has C1 continuity at intermediate points
 Cubic splines do not allow local control
 Lagrange interpolation - 4 points
 Hermite interpolation - 2 points, 2 slopes
2
1 3
4

Cubic polynomials
p1 p3 P1’
P0’

p1
p2

p0 Lagrange Hermite
p0
114
 Cubic Spline
 Parametric cubic spline curves are
piecewise polynomial curves with first
order continuity.

 Parametric cubic splines are

interpolate to given data.

 Cubic spline is determined by defining positions and tangent

vectors at the data points.

 The parametric cubic spline connects two data points and utilizes
a cubic function.

 Therefore four conditions (positions of the two end points and two
tangent vectors at the points) are required to determine the
coefficients of the equation.

115
  Parametric equation of cubic spline is given by

Where u is the parameter and Ci is the polynomial coefficients

 Expanded vector form of above equations is

 In scalar form it can written as for x, y and z components

 Matrix form it can be written as

116
 The tangent vector to the curve at any point is given by
differentiating the equation with respect to ‘u’ to give

 In order to find the coefficients Ci, consider the cubic spline curve with
two endpoints P0 and P1.
 Applying the boundary conditions

Position vector at the starting point

Tangent vector at the starting point
Position vector at the end point
Tangent vector at the end point
117
 Solving these four equations simultaneously for the coefficients gives

 Substituting in the below equation and rearranging gives

are called geometric coefficients.

Tangent Vector becomes

The function of u called blending functions.

118
 Equation can be written in a matrix form as

 Where is the Hermite matrix and V is the geometry vector.

119
120
 The use of the cubic splines in design applications is not popular
compared to Bezier or B-spline curves.

 The control of the curve is not very obvious from the input data due to its
global control characteristics.

 The order of the curve is always constant (cubic).

 The curve’s shape can be controlled by changing its endpoints or its tangent
vectors.

 If the two end points are fixed in space, the designer can control the shape
of the spline by changing either the magnitudes or the direction of the
tangent vectors.

121
Cubic Hermite Interpolation

P0 ’

P1
P0

P 1’
Hermite curve set with same end points (P 0 ve P1),
Tangent vectors P0’ and P1’ have the same directions but
P0’ have different magnitude P1’ is constant

122
 Cubic Hermite Interpolation

All tangent vector magnitudes are equal but the direction of left
tangent vector changes.
123
 BEZIER CURVES
 Bezier curves and surfaces are credited to P. Bezier of the French car
firm Regie Renault who developed (1962).

 Bezier curves were developed to allow more convenient manipulation of

curves

 A Bezier curve is defined by a set of data points. The curve may

approximate the data points.

 The data points are used to control the shape of the resulting curves.

 Only the first and the last control points or vertices of the polygon
actually lie on the curve.

 The other vertices define the order and shape of the curve.

 The curve shape tends to follow the polygon shape.

124
Bezier Curves

Control polygon

125
Bezier Curves

126
 BEZIER CURVE

 The order of defining the control points changes the polygon

definition, which changes the resulting curve shape.

 The arrow shown on the curve shows its direction.

 Cubic Bezier curve: 4 control points, 3 degree (n-1).

 Bezier curve uses Bernstein polynomials as a basic function

/ blending function.

127
 BEZIER CURVES FOR VARIOUS CONTROL POINTS

128
 BEZIER CURVES FOR VARIOUS CONTROL POINTS

129
 BEZIER CURVE
Mathematically for n+1 control points, the Bezier curve is defined by the
following polynomial of degree n:

Where P(u) is a point on the curve and Pi is a control point.

Bi,n are the Bernstein polynomials .

130
131
 Characteristics of the Bezier Curve

 The curve interpolates the first and last control points; that is,
it passes through P0 and Pn.

 The curve is tangent to the first and last segments of the

polygon.

 Slope at P0 should be P0P1, at Pn it is Pn-1 Pn . It has C1 continuity.

 The curve is symmetric: the sequence of control points defining

the curve can be reversed without change of the curve shape.

132
 Cont..

 The curve shape can be modified by either changing one or more

vertices of its polygon.

 A closed Bezier curve can simply be generated by closing its

characteristics polygon.

 The curve lies entirely within the convex hull formed by four
control points.

 The curve will never oscillates widely.

133
 Modifications of cubic Bezier Curve

134
135
 CONVEX HULL OF A BEZIER CURVE

 Bezier curve has the convex hull property.

 A curve is said to have convex hull

property if it is lies entirely within the
convex hull defined by the polygon
vertices.

 In a plane, the convex hull is a closed

polygon and in 3D it is a polyhedron.

 The hull is formed by connecting the

vertices of the characteristic polygon.

 This is a useful property for graphics

functions such as displaying or clipping the
curve.

136
 Some Bezier Curves

137
 Bezier Curves- Disadvantages

 Bezier curve seems superior to a cubic spline curve, it still has

some disadvantages.

 The curve does not pass through the control points which may be
inconvenient to some designers.

 The curve lacks local control. It only has the global control nature.

 If one control point is changed, the whole curve changes.

Therefore, the designer cannot selectively change parts of the
curve.

138
 Cubic Bezier Curves or 3rd degree Bezier curve

n =3 and four control points 1,2,3,4

139
140
141
Plotted Bezier Curve

142
 B – Spline Curve
 B-splines are a powerful tool for generating curves with many
control points and provide many advantages over Bezier curves.

 Curve is defined by n+1 control points and the order (k) of the
curve.

 A long, complicated curve can be specified in B-spline.

 The designer has much flexibility in adjusting the curvature of a

B-spline curve.

 It can be designed with sharp bends and even corners.

 It can interpolate or approximate a set of given data points.

143
 B – Spline Curve
Similar to Bezier curves, the B-spline curve defined by n+1 control points
Pi is given by

144
 The Characteristics of B- Spline Curve
 The local control of the curve can be achieved by changing the
position of a control points, using multiple control points by placing
several points at the same location, or by choosing a different degree.

 B-spline curve passes through the first and last control points P0 and
Pn+1 and is tangent to the first and last segments of the control
polygon.

145
 The Effect of Degree of B- Spline Curve on its shape

 Increasing the degree of the curve tightens it. In general, the less the
degree, the closer the curve gets to the control points.

 When k=1, a zero degree curve results. The curve then becomes the
control points themselves.

 When k=2, the curve becomes the polygon segments themselves.

 A second degree curve is always tangent to the midpoints of all the

internal polygon segments. This not in the case for other degrees.

146
 Identical B-spline and Bezier Curves

 If k equals the number of

control points, then the
resulting B-spline curve
becomes a Bezier curve.

 Multiple control points

induce regions of high
curvature of a B-spline
curve. This is useful when
creating sharp corners in
the curve.

147
 Multiple Control point B-Spline curve

148
 An Closed B-spline curve with P0 and P5 coincident

 In representing closed curves, closed polygons are used where the

first and last control points are connected by a polygon segment.

149
 INTRODUCTION TO SURFACE MODELING
 Surface modeling is required in Shape design and representation of
complex objects such as car, ship and aircraft bodies as well as
castings.

 Surface creation on existing CAD/CAM systems usually requires

wireframe entities (lines, curves, points, etc.) as a start.

 To create a surface model, the user begins by constructing wireframe

entities and then connecting them appropriately with the proper
surface entities.

 Surface models are generated by using surface primitives such as

plane surface, ruled surface, surface of revolution, tabulated
cylinder, fillet surface, offset surface, Bezier surface, B-spline
surface and coons patch.

 A surface model of an object is a more complete and less ambiguous

representation than its wireframe model.
150
 Surface Modeling
 In order to visualise surfaces on a graphic
display, a mesh say m x n in size is usually
displayed; the mesh size, is controlled by the
user.

 A wire frame model can be extracted from a

surface model by deleting all surface entities.

 Database of surface models are centralised and

associative, manipulation of surface entities in
one view is automatically reflected in the other
views.

 Surface model can be used for mass properties

calculation, finite element mesh, NC tool path
machining.

 Surface models can be shaded and represented

with hidden lines.

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 Mesh in Surface Models
Finer the mesh size of surface entities in a model, the longer the CPU
time to construct the entities and to update the graphics display and the
longer it takes to plot the surface model.

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 Surface Entities
Major surface entities provided by CAD/CAM systems.

1. Plane Surface
 This is the simplest surface.

 The plane surface can be used to generate cross sectional

views by intersecting a surface model with it.

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2. Ruled (lofted )Surface

 This is a linear surface. It interpolated linearly between two

boundary curves that define the surface (rails).

 Rails can be any wireframe entity. This entity is ideal to

represent surfaces that do not have any twists or kinks.

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3. Surface of revolution

 This is an axisymmetric surface that can model axisymmetric

objects. It is generated by rotating a planar wireframe entity
in space about the axis of symmetry a certain angle.

155
4. Tabulated Cylinder
 This is a surface generated by translating a planar curve a
certain distance along a specified direction (axis of the
cylinder)

 It is used to generate surfaces that have identical curved cross

sections.

156
5. Bezier Surface

 This is a surface that approximates given input data.

Similar to Bezier curve, it does not pass through all given

data points.

It is a synthetic surface that permits, twists and kinks.

It allows only the global control of the surface.

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6. B-spline surface

 It is a synthetic surface, can approximate or interpolate

given input data.

 It permits local control of the surface.

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7. Coons Patch

 Coons patch is used to create

surface using curves that form closed
boundaries.

8. Fillet surface

 Surface that blends two surfaces

together.

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9. Offset surface

 Existing surface can be offset to create new ones

identical in shape but may have different dimensions.

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 SURFACE REPRESENTATION

 The treatment of surfaces in computer graphics and CAD/CAM

requires developing the proper equations and algorithms for both
computation and programming purposes.

 Moreover, surface description is usually related to machining

requirements to manufacture the surface.

 The surface description must successfully drive a tool to generate its

path.

 Surface can be described mathematically in three dimensional space

by nonparametric or parametric equations.

where P is the position vector of a point on the surface.

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 Solid Modeling-Introduction
Solid Modeling (Volumetric modeling) techniques begun to develop in
the late 1960s and early 1970s.
 Eliminate all kinds of ambiguities in representation and
manipulations.

 The completeness of the information contained in a solid model

allows the automatic production of realistic images of a shape.

 The model can serve as a means of geometric input for finite

element analysis or numerically controlled machining.

 It produces accurate designs

 It provides complete three dimensional definition. It improves

the quality of the design

 It improves visualization. It has potential for functional

automation and integration.
162
• Are a more complete representation than its surface model.

• Contain geometric data as well as topological information.

163
Use of Solid Modeling in design and manufacturing increasing due to

 Reduced computing costs

 Fast computing hardware

 Improved user interface

 Software improvements

 It is the solution to automating and integrating design and

manufacturing.

 The complete definition of part shape is a key to CIM.

 It store more information than wire frame or surface modelers.

164
 Geometry and Topology in Solid Models

• The data base have two types of

information.

• The first is the metric or

geometric data which relate to
the 3D coordinate positions of
the object in space.

• Second is the connectivity or topological data which relate objects

with each other.

• Both information are necessary, as different shapes can result with

Same geometry- different topology
Different geometry-same topology

165
 Geometry and Topology in Solid Models

• The geometry is the actual

dimensions that define the entities
of the object.

• The length of lines L1, L2, L3 and

the angles between the lines, and
the radius R and the center P1 of
the half circle.

• Topology is the connectivity of the object entities.

• L1 shares a vertex with L2 and C1 , L2 shares a vertex with L1

and L3, L3 shares a vertex with L2 and C1, L1 and L3 do not
overlap, and P1 lies outside the object.
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 Solid Models-Primitives Approach

• Using primitive approach, one can construct the solid model of the object by
dividing it into blocks and cylinders.

167
 Solid Models-Features Approach

• In feature approach the designer can create different cross sections and
extrude them.

168
 Solid Entities
 Primitives (building blocks) are simple basic shapes and are
considered the solid modeling entities which can be combined by a
mathematical set of Boolean operations to create the solid.
The most common primitives are:-
 Block
 Cylinder
 Cone
 Sphere
 Wedge
 Torus

 A primitives requires a set of location data, a set of geometric

data and a set of orientation data.

 Primitives are usually translated or rotated to position and

oriented properly before applying Boolean operations.
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Various Solid Modeling Primitives

170
Most Common Primitives

171
 Primitives

 Two or more primitives can be combined to form the desired solid.

 The relationships between primitives are achieved via Boolean

operations.

Boolean operations are

 Union

 Intersection

 Difference

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Boolean Operations of a Block A and Cylinder B

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174
 Solid Representation
• A solid model of an object is defined
mathematically as a point set S in 3-D
Euclidean space.

• The interior, the boundary and

exterior of the solid is denoted by iS,
bS and cS respectively

• Then the object is represented by the

relation KS  bS  iS

W  bSsetWiSis 
• The universal cS
represented by

Where kS is the geometric closer, which implies that the interior of

the solid is geometrically closed by its boundary.
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 Solid Model-Properties
Rigidity- Shape of model is invariant and does not depend on the model location or
orientation in space.

Homogenous three Dimensionality – boundaries must be in contact with interior.

No isolated or dangling boundaries should be permitted.

Finiteness and Finite Describability – Size of the solid is not infinite and a limited
amount of information can describe the solid.

Closure Under Rigid Motion and Regularized Boolean

Operations –
Manipulation of solids by moving them in space or
changing them via Boolean operations must produce other
valid solids.

Boundary Determinism –
The boundary of a solid must contain the solid and hence
must determine distinctively the interior of the solid.

176
The properties of representation schemes
Domain –
 Class of objects that the scheme can represent or it is the geometric
coverage of the scheme.

Validity –
 Validity of a representation scheme is determined by its range, i.e.,
the set of valid representations or models it can produce.

Completeness or Unambiguousness –
 This properties determines the ability of the scheme to support
analysis and other engineering applications.

Uniqueness –
 Used to determine object equality.

177
 Solid Representation
Representation scheme is defined as a relation that maps a valid point
set into a valid model.

One model produced by the

scheme represents only one
object.

More than one model

represent the object.

One model can represent

more than one object.

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Positional and permutational nonuniqueness

179
Other properties of representation schemes

Conciseness
 Measure of the size of data a scheme requires to describe an
object.
 The scheme generates compact databases, convenient to
store and efficient to transmit from one system to another.

Ease of operation
 Determines the user-friendliness of a scheme.

Efficacy
 Measures how accessible a representation is by downstream
applications.
 Good representation schemes should permit the use of a wide
variety of application algorithms for evaluating various
functions.

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Various representation schemes
The nine solid representation schemes are
 Half-spaces
 Boundary Representation (B-rep)
 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
 Sweeping
 Analytical Solid Modeling (ASM)
 Cell decomposition
 Spatial enumeration
 Octree encoding and
 Primitive instancing

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 Algorithms

 Representation of solids are built and invoked

via algorithms (processors)

 Algorithm is a procedure that takes certain

input and produces a desired output.

Three types of algorithms

 a: data → rep (algorithm a is defined as
taking data and producing representation) –
these algorithms build, maintain and manage
representations.

 a: rep → data (compute property values - by

taking a representation and producing data)
– application algorithms belong to this type.

 a: rep→rep (take representations and

produce representations) – algorithm that
converts CSG to B-rep.
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 Boundary Representation (B-rep)
• It is based on the topological notion that a physical object
is bound by a set of faces.

• A boundary model comprised of faces, vertices and edges

linked together.

• Each face is bounded by edges and each edge is bounded

by vertices.

• The database of a B-rep model consists of both the

geometry as well as the topology of the object.

183
• Topology – by Euler operations.
• Geometry- by Euclidean calculations.

• Euler operations - to create, manipulate and edit the faces, edges and vertices.

• Geometry – includes coordinates of vertices, rigid motion and

transformation (translation, rotation) and metric information (distances,
angles, areas, volumes).

• Geometry and topology are interrelated and cannot be separated.

184
 Basic Elements of B-rep

• Primitives are used to create both polyhedral as well as curved

objects.
• A polyhedral object consists of planar faces (or sides) connected
by straight (linear) edges, which in turn are connected at the
vertices.
• A curved object is like a polyhedron but with curved faces and
edges

Classification of Polyhedral objects

 Simple Polyhedron (no inner loops, holes or handles)
 Polyhedrons with inner loops.
 Polyhedrons that have holes but not through holes.
 Polyhedrons with handles or genus

185
Types of polyhedral objects

186
187
188
189
 Object Faces Edges Vertices Inner Bodies Genus
No (F) (E) (V) Loop (B) (G)
(L)
4 1 6 12 8 0 1 0

2 5 8 5 0 1 0

3 10 24 16 0 1 0

4 16 36 24 2 1 0

5 11 24 16 1 1 0

6 12 24 16 0 2 0

5 7 10 24 16 2 1 1

8 20 48 32 4 1 1

9 14 36 24 2 1 1

8 9
1 7
2 3
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Exact B-rep of a cylinder and a sphere

191
Approximate B-rep or Faceted B-rep

 Curved face is divided

into planar facets.

 Faceted cylinder is
generated by rotating a
line incrementally about
the axis.

192
General data structure for B-rep

 It should have both

topological and
geometrical information.

 Lists for bodies, faces,

loops, edges and vertices
are generated and stored
in tables.

193
194
195
Euler Operations

196
Topology Creation via Euler Operators

197
198
Create the boundary model of solid S as shown in the figure

199
200
201
Boundary Model of Solid S

202
Rotational Sweep Boundary Model

203
Advantages of B-rep

 It is very appropriate to construct solid models of unusual

shapes that are difficult to build using primitives.

 e.g., Aircraft and Automobile body

 It is relatively simple to convert a B-rep model into a

wireframe model because the model’s boundary definition is
similar to the wireframe definition.

Disadvantage

 The disadvantage of B-rep is that it requires large amounts of

storage because it stores the definition of the model boundaries.

 B-rep do not have a CSG compatible user interface.

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 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
 CSG and B-rep schemes are very popular schemes and best understood
representations so far.

 CSG representations are easy to create, store and easy to check for
validity.

 A CSG model is based on the topological notion

physical object can be divided into a set of primitives (basic elements or
shapes) and that can be combined in a certain order following a set of
rules (Boolean operations) to form the object.

 Each primitive is bounded by a set of surfaces, it is combined via a

boundary evaluation process to form the boundary of the object.

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206
207
208
209
 Data Base of CSG
• The Database of CSG model stores its topology and
geometry.

• Topology is created via regularized set (Boolean)

operations that combine primitives.

• The geometry stored in the database of a CSG model

includes configuration parameters of its primitives and
rigid motion and transformation.

• Data structures of CSG representations are based on the

concept of graphs and trees.

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 Graph
• A graph is defined as a set of nodes connected by a set of
branches or lines.
• Each branch in a graph is specified by a pair of nodes.
• The set of nodes is  A, B, C , D, E , F , G
• The set of branches or pairs is

A, B, A, C, B, C, B, E, B, F , B, G, C, D, C, E

These pairs are unordered, that is,

no relation exist between the
elements of each pair.

Pair  A, B can also be B, A

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 Directed Graph or Digraph

Pairs of nodes that make up the branches are ordered pairs

 Branches have directions and

arrows going from one node
to another.

 The tail of each arrow

represents the first node in the
pair and its head represents the
second node.

The set of ordered pairs are

A, B, A, C, C, B, B, E, F , B, B, G, D, C, E, C 

212
 Path in Digraph
 Each node in digraph has an
Indegree (number of arrow heads entering the
node)

Outdegree (number of arrow tails leaving the

node)

Path (sequence of nodes)

 Node B has an indegree of 3 and an outdegree of 2 while node D has a
zero indegree and an outdegree of 1.

 Each node in a digraph belongs to a path.

 The path from node A to node G is A, B, G or A, C, B, G.

 If the start and end nodes of a path are the same, the path is a cycle.

 If a graph contains a cycle, it is cyclic; otherwise it is acyclic.

213
 Tree
• A tree is defined as an acyclic digraph in which only a single
node, called the root, has a zero indegree and every other
node has an indegree of one.

• This implies that any node in the tree except the root has
predecessors or ancestors.

 Node A is the root of the tree

and nodes E, F, G have node
B as their predecessor.

 If the descendants of each

node are in order, then the tree
is an ordered one.

214
 Binary and Inverted Binary Tree
• If the ordered tree has two descendants, the tree is called a binary
tree.
 Any node in a tree that does not have
descendants, that is, with an out degree
equal to zero, is called a leaf node
(D,E,F,G).

 Any node that does have descendants

(out degree greater than zero) is an
interior node (B,C).

 If the arrow directions in a binary

tree are reversed such that every
node, except the root, in the tree has
an out degree of 1 and the root has a
zero out degree, the tree is called an
inverted binary tree.
215
 Sub-Tree
 Every node of a tree (T) is a root of another tree, called a sub tree
of T, contained in the original tree T.

 The tree consists of seven nodes with

A as its root.

 Its left sub tree is rooted at B and its

right sub tree is rooted at C.

 The absence of a branch indicates an

empty sub tree.

 The binary tree rooted at the leaves D,

E, F, G have empty left and right
sub trees.

216
 Typical solid and its primitives

A block and a cylinder primitive are enough to create CSG model of the solid.

217
• A user can construct the CSG model using the following steps:
B1= block positioned properly
B2= block positioned properly
B3= block
B4= B3 moved properly in X direction
C1= cylinder positioned properly
C2= C1 moved properly in X direction
C3= cylinder positioned properly
C4= C3 moved properly in X direction

218
S1  B1 *B3
S 2  S1 *C1
S3  S 2 *C3
S 4  B2 *B4
S5  C2 *S 4
S 6  C4 *S5
S  S3 *S 6

219
 CSG graph

S1  B1 *B3
S 2  S1 *C1
S 3  S 2 *C3
S 4  B2 *B4
S 5  C2 *S 4
S 6  C4 *S 5
S  S 3 *S 6

220
Data structure of a Primitive solid

221
222
• Create the CSG model of solid S as shown in the figure

223
Constructive Solid Geometry

224
Solid Modeling using 3D Primitives

225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
 Finite Element Modeling (FEM)
• What is finite element modeling?
– It involves taking a continuous structure and “cutting”
it into several smaller elements and describing each
of these small elements by simple algebraic
equations. These equations are then assembled for
the structure and the field quantity (displacement) is
solved.
• In which fields can it be used?
– Stresses
– Heat transfer
– Fluid flow
– Electromagnetic

239
 FEM: The process
• The continuous model was cut into 2 smaller
elements.
• An algebraic stiffness equation was developed
at each node.
• The algebraic equations were assembled and
solved.
• This process can be applied for complicated
system with the help of a finite element software.

240
 FEM: Element types
• 1-dimensional • Each of the elements have an
– Rod elements associated stiffness matrix
– Beam elements
• 2-dimensional
– Shell elements
• 3-dimensional
– Tetrahedral elements
– Hexahedral elements
• Special Elements
– Springs
– Dampers
– Contact elements
– Rigid elements
Finite elements and placing loads for analysis
Mesh Elements

One-dimensional

Planar

Shell

Solid
FEM: Materials
• Properties
– Modulus of elasticity (E)
– Poisson’s ratio ()
– Shear modulus (G)
– Density
– Damping
– Thermal expansion (α)
– Thermal conductivity
– Latent heat
– Specific heat
– Electrical conductivity
• Isotropic, orthotropic, anisotropic
• Homogeneous, composite
• Elastic, plastic, viscoelastic

Strain (%)
 FEM: Boundary Conditions
(constraints and loads)
• Boundary conditions are used to mimic the surrounding environment
(what is not included in your model)
– Simple example: Cantilever beam
• Beam is bolted to a wall and displacements and rotations are
hindered.
– More complex example: Tire of a car
• Is the bottom of the tire fixed to the ground?
• Is there friction involved?
• How is the force transferred into the tire?
– Are the transfer characteristics of the bearings considered?
– Are breaking loads considered?
– Interface between components?
Geometry Modelling

Discretization
(Meshing)
Pre-processing
Apply Materials
Properties

Apply boundary
conditions

Solving the matrix

equations Solving

Interpretation
of Results like Post-processing
Displacement, stress,
velocity, Temperature

245
Meshing is discretization. It is the most important
part of an analysis and can determined the efficiency
and effectiveness of an analysis. Therefore, a lot of
time is given to meshing of complex models.

246
247
248
249
250
251
252
Visualize the mesh
Definition of solution and visualize color ranges
Nodal values – details from different regions of the solid
Common FEA Applications
 Simulation in manufacturing refers to a broad collection of
computer based applications to imitate the behavior of
manufacturing systems.

 Simulation is intended to study the model of this real world

system by numerical evaluation using software.

 Simulation is carried out to evaluate the performance

of a system, product or process before it is physically built
or implemented.

 Simulation technology holds tremendous promise for

reducing costs, improving quality, and shortening the time-
to-market for manufactured goods.
257
TYPES OF SIMULATION

Simulation could be classified into three types.

i. Static or dynamic simulation:
In static simulation time does not have a role.

However, most of the manufacturing systems are time

dependent and are hence dynamic.

ii. Continuous or discrete: A continuous system is one

which continuously varies with time.
Examples are refinery, thermal power plant and plate glass
manufacturing plant where production is continuous but
may fluctuate over time.

258
iii. Deterministic or stochastic:
Systems which have no random inputs are deterministic.
A design bureau or a rapid prototyping shop may receive
orders at random. Several fabrication companies may also
fall under this category.

A manufacturing system may also have both deterministic

and random inputs.

259
TECHNIQUES OF SIMULATION
Simulation can be carried out in three ways.

i. Programming in general purpose simulation languages

ii. Simulation using simulation languages

iii. High level simulators

260
SIMULATION PROCESS FOR MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The process of simulating a manufacturing system involves the following
steps.

i. Model design: In this step the issues to be addressed are identified based
on which the project is planned. Next step is to develop a conceptual
model.

ii. Model development: The simulation engineer chooses a modeling

approach suitable for the problem. After building the model it is tested to
verify and validate the model.

iii. Model deployment: The model is used to carry out experiments like
‘What if” analysis. The results are then studied and used for making
decisions.

261