Communication Skills

Writing
 CONTENT 1
Students’ Ability to Communicate Factual Information, Ideas and
Arguments Clearly and with Expansion

 Written expression is an essential skill in academic and

professional environments. From the briefest of
communications to essays, texts follow certain rules and
writing conventions that change from one language to another,
so it's important to know the differences. One vital step is the
structuring of each type of text.
  Understanding the Purpose of a Text: Informational,
Argumentative and Discursive
• Informational: A text that is informational usually educates the reader on a
topic. It could be to define a concept, compare and contrast something, analyze
data, or provide a how to. They do not present an opinion or try to persuade a
reader. Examples: Talk about favorite book; what is Artificial Intelligence? My
favourite food.

• Argumentative: An argumentative text is one of the most common types of text

and is characterized by trying to persuade the reader of an idea by providing
arguments.  It champions a specific position. It offers data and arguments to
defend that position. It takes opposing arguments into account, and discusses
these. It can deal with a wide variety of topics.

• Discursive: A discursive text presents and discusses issues and opinions. The
purpose may be to convince or persuade someone that a particular course of
action is important or necessary, or simply to present all sides of an argument.
Discursive texts usually: compare or contrast two or more things, present a
problem and suggest a solution, or present arguments for or against an action.
 Examples of informative texts

• Examples: Talk about favourite book; what is Artificial

Intelligence? My favourite food; etc.

Sample 1: Nelson Mandela Dies:

• The former president of South Africa, Nelson Mandela, has died at
the age of 95, as reported by the president of South Africa, Jacob
Zuma, adding that he has gone in peace at his home in
Johannesburg, in the company of his family. The death occurred
on Thursday at 8:50 p.m. local time, after a long convalescence
from a lung infection. “Our nation has lost its father. Nelson
Mandela brought us together and together we said goodbye to
him, “Zuma said in a televised message to the entire nation …
(Newspaper article. Source: The World)
 Examples of Informative Texts

Sample 2: Donating Blood

• When you woke up this morning, did you think today would be
the day you save a life? In fact, it's quite easy to save a life and it
only takes a little bit of your time. You don't even need to be a
paramedic or firefighter. All you have to do is set aside
approximately one hour to donate blood. This essay will explore
how to donate blood, whom it benefits, and how often you can
contribute to these life-saving measures.
 Examples of Argumentative and Discursive Text

Examples: legalizing abortion; granting illegal immigrant

residency; legalising LGTBQ in the country; is social media bad
for relationship?

Discursive Text
Examples: do all adults need 8 hours of sleep? Is technology
addiction a real addiction?
 Familiarisation with Models of Clear Language Planning:
What to Include in the Writing and How to Organise

• Generally, make sure all your facts are accurate. You will need
to write a topic sentence for each fact and write a focus
sentence (thesis statement) for the entire essay. Create an
outline that will organise your facts in a logical way. Then you
will be ready to make your first draft.
 1. Informational

• create a sound, tentative thesis statement before writing. This

is done by thinking about what you want to share with the
reader. Secondly, list the questions related to the chosen topic
along with facts you know. Provide specific examples from
real life to prove that the issue/topic is real. Finally, your
source is very optimal.
 2. Argumentative:

• your text is as good as your argument, and structuring good

arguments require a little more than just being stubborn,
aggressive or being combative. You must provide sufficient
research to support your claim and invalidate opposing
perspectives. Here, we will present three models on
argumentative texts:
 Classic (Aristotelian) Model

• This involves making straightforward arguments. It follows a

direct and logical path: introduce the problem; explain your
perspective; explain your opponent’s perspective and refute
them one by one as you go; present your evidence; lastly,
conclude your argument.
 Toulmin Model

• you use this when presenting complex issues with no clear

truths or when your thesis is a rebuttal or counterargument. It
follows six forms: claim –your thesis or argument stated
clearly; reasons –your evidence, including data and generally
accepted facts; warrant –the connection between your claim
and reason (requiring you to state assumptions explicitly so
there’s no confusion); backing –additional evidence to support
your claim; qualifier –the limits to your own claim, including
concessions; and lastly, rebuttal – addressing opposing
viewpoints and criticisms of your claim.
 Rogerian Model

• This is used when showing both sides of an argument as valid

or when presenting to a mixed audience. It is least
confrontational and most respectful, and it is helpful when
convincing readers who are naturally biased against your main
claim. It has five step structure: introduce the problem; explain
your opponent’s perspective first and validate their point when
correct; explain your perspective; bring both sides together
and present a middle ground where both sides coexist; and
lastly, conclude your balanced argument.
 3. Discursive:

• you must express your thoughts in a logical way. When

picking a topic here, pick something a little controversial or
debatable. You must investigate your chosen topic from
different angles as possible. Use personal anecdotes that may
have a conversational tone. Either you use figurative,
descriptive or factual approach. Have a resolution that may be
reflective or open-ended. A discursive piece does not need a
clear conclusion!
 Content 2.
Production of Written Texts that Show Control of Language

 Observation of Grammatical Structures

 The ability to use language proficiently transcends the natural acquisition which
everyone is endowed with. The knowledge of permissible structures and word
order is crucial for anyone who desires to speak and write a language confidently.
Words are not arbitrarily arranged; they follow specific orders and are grouped
within sentence elements. The knowledge of these sentence elements, as well as
the basic sentence types they can generate, is quite essential to language use,
especially in written form. Grammatical structure in English language is simply
the arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence. So the structure and
organization of a sentence is what grammatical structures is all about, and it is
greatly dependent on what is called the “syntax or syntactic structure”. The
grammatical structure demands that words and phrases are arranged in a certain
manner to create a well-formed sentence.

 There are four basic types of sentence structure in English language: simple,
compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences.
 The Simple Sentence

• A simple sentence is simply a sentence with a grammar structure containing

only one independent clause and no dependent clauses at all. They form the
basis of other more complex sentences.

Samples:
• 1. Nkechi loves potatoes.
• 2. He went home after the meeting.

 Grammar and sentence structures that have two or more simple sentences are
defined as compound sentences. They are just like simple sentences, but at least
two times more than what can be obtained from simple sentences; talking about
two or more independent clauses. The notable thing about compound sentences
is that no matter how your grammar structure is presented, it signals to the
reader that you are discussing two different ideas that are equally important.
 Examples of Compound Sentence

• Sarah went to school; Ngozi slept at home.

• Sarah went to school while Ngozi slept at home.

 Another grammatical structure considered as one of the basic

types of English structure is the complex sentence. This
grammatical structure contains an independent clause (or main
clause) and at least one independent clause. So, the main clause
and one or more dependent clauses all put together in a sentence
with appropriate conjunction or pronoun is all it takes to come up
a complex grammar structure in English language.
 Examples of Complex Sentence

• The baby laughed when her father dropped the hot kettle
upside down on the floor.
• Because she was so smart, Favour was always one of the best
in her class.

 Of all the most basic types of grammatical structures in

English language, the compound-complex structure is the most
complex. It combines elements of the compound and complex
grammar structures, and as such is the most sophisticated type
of sentence you can use.
 Examples of Compound-Complex Sentence

• Her blue car was cleaned new, bright and sparkling on the
road, but the tires do not run smooth, as though it needs some
repairs and replacements.
• In the company, everyone is of the opinion that I have no
superiors since I exhibit so much confidence and interact in an
assertive manner with everyone, but I do not think I have any
inferiors either, because, to me, all men are equal.

 Understanding compound-complex grammatical structure in

English language will help you take your writing to a new
level of complexity in a really good way. 
 Observation of Vocabulary, Punctuation and Spelling

• Vocabulary refers to the words we must understand to communicate

effectively. Writing vocabulary consists of the words we use in writing.
Vocabulary refers to the knowledge of words, including their structure
(morphology), use (grammar), meanings (semantics), and links to other
words (word/semantic relationships).

• Words all have: meaning, which can vary according to context; phonology
– that is, sounds; morphology – that is, word parts; syntax, that is, the way
in which words are arranged to form phrases or sentences; uses, which may
be multiple, depending on context.
• Successful writing text is related to knowledge of word meanings. Experts
pointed out words are the writer’s tools of trade. But before the writer can
choose precisely the right word for the appropriate context, the writer
needs to know a little about the kind of words which they will use.

 Some areas that need to be watched for include the following points:
 1. Misused Words

Consider the following sentences

• a. Thank you very much for your intention (instead of
attention)

• b. We plant to go…. (instead of plan)

 These words sound the same but do not have the same
meaning. The inability to choose the right vocabulary leads
them to failure in writing.
 2. Incomprehensible Words

• These are words used in the text but cannot be understood.

Using incomprehensible words in writing lead the readers to
be confused. This is often realized in translation to the target
language by the L2 speaker. Examples:
– a. Gladly and thankfully for your cooperation.
– b. We are two buses in convoy.
 The developing vocabulary presented in each sentence only
translate word-for-word or literally, ignored the linguistic
background of target language.
 3. Spelling Mistake

• Spelling Mistake are words written wrongly. The errors happen

because they do not know the exact pronunciation of words written,
and do not know how to write the vocabulary in the target language.
Common examples are:
– Litle (instead of little)
– Permite (instead of permit)
• Punctuation fills our writing with silent intonation. We pause, stop,
emphasize, or question using a comma, a period, an exclamation
point or a question mark. Correct punctuation adds clarity and
precision to writing; it allows the writer to stop, pause, or give
emphasis to certain parts of the sentence.
• There are 14 punctuation marks in English grammar, and at least one
of them has to appear in every sentence. But how do you choose the
right one, and how do you know if you're using it correctly?
 Punctuation Must be Parallel
 If you interrupt a main clause with one type of punctuation mark, such as a dash or
a comma, you need to provide the same type of punctuation mark at the end. For
example:
 Incorrect - The teenagers, students from Mrs. Smith's art class — went on a field
trip to the museum.
 Correct - The teenagers, students from Mrs. Smith's art class, went on a field trip
to the museum.
 Correct - The teenagers — students from Mrs. Smith's art class — went on a field
trip to the museum.
 The choice to use commas or dashes in this situation depends on your personal
preference. As long as you use the same mark at the beginning and the end, it's
correct. The parallel punctuation rule also means that you should not use
a semicolon to set off just one item in a list. For example:
 Incorrect - I have lived in Des Moines, Iowa, Seattle, Washington; and Boise,
Idaho.
• Correct - I have lived in Des Moines, Iowa; Seattle, Washington; and Boise,
Idaho.
• Semicolons are an effective way to separate list items that have commas in them.
However, you need to either use them for every list item or don't use them at all.
 Use Emdashes Sparingly

 Writers often use an emdash (the longest of the three dashes) to

mark off information for emphasis. It's an effective way to shock
the reader or to draw attention to important details. For example:
• For his birthday, Mark received a sweater, a jacket, a
savings bond — and a new bike!
• Pizza, chocolate, and ice cream — these are my favorite
foods.
• I'd love to return to Italy — it's where I met my husband.
 These sentences are both intriguing and clear for the reader to
understand. However, emdashes must appear sparingly, or the
effect is lost. Try to limit them to one per paragraph, or even one
per page if possible.
 A Colon Appears at the End of the Main Clause
 If you have trouble deciding where to use a colon in your writing,
ask yourself if a period or question mark would be appropriate in
the same location. If the sentence is already complete, you may use
a colon to add a list, elaboration or restatement.
• List - I have three brothers: David, Kent and Jacob.
• Elaboration - I have decided not to move to San Francisco: I
have been offered a better job in Milwaukee.
• Restatement - Jenny wasn't sure who started yesterday's fight:
she didn't know who was to blame.
 A common grammar mistake is to place a colon between a
preposition and its object (such as "Lemonade is made from:
lemons, sugar and water"). Solve this problem by determining
whether the text before the colon is a complete sentence. If it is,
you're probably using the colon correctly. If not, determine a better
place for the colon, or choose a different punctuation mark.
 Semicolons Separate Two Independent Clauses

• When you create compound sentences with coordinating

conjunctions, you're joining two independent clauses. Semicolons
can also join related independent clauses that are of equal
importance, but each side of the semicolon must be a complete
sentence. For example:
• Sarah answered my question abruptly; she seemed preoccupied.
• The puppy was very nervous; she had never been in a car before.
• My new job is exciting; I love working with a team.
• You could put a period in place of each of these semicolons and they
would still be grammatically correct. The same rule applies when
you use a semicolon before a conjunctive adverb joining two
clauses (such as "The restaurant was very crowded; however, the
waitress took our order immediately.")
 Parentheses show Related, Nonessential Elements

• Parentheses show elements in a sentence that are related but not

necessary to understand the meaning of the sentence. If the
information inside the parentheses forms a complete sentence
within the larger sentence, no punctuation is necessary. For
example:
• My family visited several countries (Italy, France, Portugal, and
Spain) on our vacation last year.
• The snow (April saw it when she passed the window) completely
covered the trees.
• Gloria's friends (or so she thought) weren't waiting at the lunch
table.
• When the information is more essential to the sentence, you can
replace them with commas in most cases. (Just make sure to keep
that parallel punctuation!)
 Apostrophes only Show Possession or Omission

 An apostrophe shows possession of another noun or omission of a

part of a word (as in a contraction). Other than these occasions,
you should not use an apostrophe. For example, you should use an
apostrophe when using a:
• singular possessive noun (Susan's book)
• singular possessive noun ending in -s (Chris's car)
• plural possessive noun (my parents' house)
• contraction (can't, won't, shouldn't)
 If you see an apostrophe outside of these occasions, such as in
plural nouns that are not possessive, you've probably found a
grammatical error. Apostrophes have specific uses and shouldn't
be included without a specific purpose.
 Ellipses only Indicate Omissions in Text or Pauses in Dialogue

 Many writers like to use ellipses for effect. However, there are

only two times when you can correctly use omissions:
• Omitting irrelevant parts of a quote - "The witnesses reported that
the suspect fled the scene ... and headed west toward the
highway."
• Indicating a pause or "trailing off" in a character's dialogue -
"Please," whispered Mary, "don't forget me ..."
 If you find ellipses in your narration, you can safely replace them
with other punctuation marks. And if you absolutely must include
ellipses in other instances, strongly limit them to avoid slowing
your pace.
 End Punctuation Marks belong inside Quotation Marks

 When punctuating a quote, you almost always place the end

punctuation mark inside the quotation marks. End punctuation
includes periods, exclamation points, and periods. For example:
• Percy asked, "Who borrowed my bike?"
• "Stop yelling!" my mother shouted.
• "You're not invited to my party anymore," said Sheri.
 Even in the last example, where the statement's period is replaced
by a comma, it's inside the quotation marks. You can only leave an
exclamation mark or question mark outside the quotation if it's
part of the sentence, not the quote. (For example: Who said "I'm
not telling"?)
 Only Use One Exclamation Mark at a Time

 You have probably seen (or used) two exclamation marks to

express excitement. While this notation is all right for texting, it's
best to use only one at a time in most types of writing. For
example:
• I can't wait for the party tonight!
• We should have never come here!
• You never listen to me!
 It's best to try and avoid exclamation marks altogether in formal
academic writing. However, if you're writing a story or making an
argumentative point that requires an emphasis, only use one
exclamation mark.
 Don't Use Hyphens for Adverbs Ending in -ly

 When you form a compound adjective, you use a hyphen to connect

an adverb to an adjective to accurately describe a noun. However, if that
adverb ends in -ly, don't use a hyphen. For example:
• Hyphen - Arthur is a well-respected man.
• No hyphen - Arthur is a highly respected man.
• Hyphen - This is the author's best-known work.
• No hyphen - This is the author's popularly known work.
• Hyphen - The ill-informed community was surprised by the development.
• No hyphen - The poorly informed community was surprised by the
development.
 Another adverb to avoid hyphenating is "very" (such as "a very respected
man"). The rules change when the compound adjective follows the noun;
typically, no hyphenation is required in these cases.
  Checking for Accuracy.

 
select and organize relevant information and ideas into coherent text
using appropriate linking devices. For example:
Cause/effect: therefore, because of, as a result, consequently, etc.
Addition: in addition, moreover, furthermore, as well as, etc.
Contrast and concession: however, in contrast, whereas, although, etc.
Mastery of ways of organizing texts into a logical or clear order, and
the use of paragraph.