WHAT IS SEISMOLOGY?

• Seismology is a science dealing with all the

aspects of earthquakes:

• It is through the science that seismic

activity and thus the seismic design loads
for a bridge/building may be quantified.
 BRANCHES OF SEISMOLOGY

i. OBSERVATIONAL SEISMOLOGY

ii. ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY

iii. PHYSICAL SEISMOLOGY

iv. EXPLORATIONAL SEISMOLOGY

 I. OBSERVATIONAL SEISMOLOGY

• Recording earthquakes (microseismology)

• Cataloguing earthquakes

• Observing earthquake effects

II. ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY

• Estimation of seismic hazard and risk

• Aseismic building
III. PHYSICAL SEISMOLOGY

• Study of the properties of the Earth’s Interior

• Study of physical characteristics of seismic

sources
 IV. EXPLORATIONAL SEISMOLOGY
(Application of seismic methods)

• Seismic Reflection, Refraction, Cross Hole

etc.

• Mainly related to Oil exploration.

 OBJECTIVES

• Find ways to reduce hazards of

earthquakes by learning how to predict
their consequences

• Determine ways the ground is likely to

shake during the earthquake, how shaking
will be and how long will last
 OBJECTIVES

• Knowledge of the ground motion that can be

expected during an earthquake can make it
possible to design structure economically
and strong enough to survive being shaken

• It is essential to understand the

characteristics of the earthquake source to
predict both the occurrence and the ground
motion that an earthquake will generate.
TO SEE HOW EARTHQUAKES OCCUR, WE FIRST NEED TO
LEARN ABOUT CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH!
THE THREE MAJOR CHEMICAL RADIAL DIVISIONS

• Crust
• Mantle
• Core
THE SHALLOWEST LAYER OF THE
EARTH: THE CRUST
• The crust is the most
heterogeneous layer in the
Earth
• The crust is on average 33 km
thick for continents and 10 km
thick beneath oceans; however
it varies from just a few km to • This boundary is
over 70 km globally.
• The boundary between the
crust and the mantle is mostly
chemical. The crust and
mantle have different
compositions.
referred to as the Mohorovičić
discontinuity
or “Moho”.
• It was discovered in 1910 by
the Croatian seismologist
Andrija Mohorovičić.
 MIDDLE EARTH: THE MANTLE

• Earth’s mantle exists from the

bottom of the crust to a depth of
2891 km (radius of 3480 km) –
Gutenberg discontinuity
• It is further subdivided into:
• The uppermost mantle
(crust to 400 km depth) Beno Gutenberg
• The transition zone
(400 – 700 km depth)
• The mid-mantle
(700 to ~2650 km depth)
• The lowermost mantle
(~2650 – 2891 km depth)
• The uppermost mantle is
composed dominantly of olivine;
lesser components include
pyroxene, enstatite, and garnet
 EARTH’S CORE
 Owing to the great pressure
inside the Earth the Earth’s
core is actually freezing as the
Earth gradually cools.
 The boundary between the
liquid outer core and the solid
inner core occurs at a radius of
about 1220 km – Lehman
discontinuity, after Inge
Lehman from Denmark.
 The boundary between the
mantle and outer core is sharp.
 The change in density across
the core-mantle boundary is
greater than that at the Earth’s
surface!
 The viscosity of the outer core
is similar to that of water, it
flows kilometers per year and
creates the Earth’s magnetic
field.
 The outer core is the most
homogeneous part of the Earth
 The outer core is mostly an
alloy of iron and nickel in liquid
form.
 As the core freezes latent heat
is released; this heat causes
the outer core to convect and
so generates a magnetic field.
Mechanical
Layers:

1. Lithosphere
2. Asthenosphere
3. Mesosphere
 DEFINATION OF EARTHQUAKES

An earthquake results from the energy released by rapid motion of the

two portions of the earth past each other. The surface along which they
move is termed as fault. The rapid motion sets up seismic waves,
which emanate outward from the point of major motion on the fault and
pass through overlying rocks to the Earth’s surface.

Most earthquakes are so small that they are completely unnoticeable

by anything other than the most delegate seismographic instruments.
However, major movements release immense quantities of stored
elastic energy and rapid dissipation of this energy in the form of
seismic waves causes sufficient ground movement for considerable
surface damage to result. Ground movement rarely exceeds a few
centimeters, but sudden motions even this small size can be
catastrophic to buildings or other man made structures.
 CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHQUAKES

TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES

Due to sudden failure of rocks. Majority of these earthquakes are

generated due to tectonic movement.

VOLCANIC EARTHQUAKES

Due to volcanic activities in volcanic regions.

COLLASPE EARTHQUAKES

Due to collapse of cavities in the earth’s interior.

RESERVOIR INDUCED EARTHQUAKES

Due to loading and unloading of artificial reservoirs.

 SEISMOLOGICAL TERMS
Epicenter:

The epicenter of an earthquake is the point on a fault

where an earthquake starts. The stress in the Earth's
crust pushes on the fault holding it together and causing
frictional resistance between the rocks on each side.
Because of the friction, when the rocks are pushed
sideways, they do not slip immediately. Eventually
enough slip is built up and the rocks slip suddenly,
releasing energy in the form of sound waves and shear
waves that travel through the rock to cause the shaking
that we feel as earthquakes. Earthquakes happen over
an area of a fault, called the rupture surface. However,
the slip does not occur over the whole fault plane at
once.
 SEISMOLOGICAL TERMS
Hypocenter: The hypocenter is the point within the earth
where an earthquake rupture starts. The epicenter is the point
directly above it at the surface of the Earth. Also commonly
termed the focus.
Mainshock: The mainshock is the largest earthquake in a
sequence, sometimes preceded by one or more foreshocks,
and almost always followed by many aftershocks.
Aftershock: Aftershocks are earthquakes that follow the
largest shock of an earthquake sequence. They are smaller
than the mainshock and within 1-2 rupture lengths distance
from the mainshock. Aftershocks can continue over a period
of weeks, months, or years. In general, the larger the
mainshock, the larger and more numerous the aftershocks,
and the longer they will continue.
 SEISMOLOGICAL TERMS
Foreshock: Foreshocks are relatively smaller earthquakes that
precede the largest earthquake in a series, which is termed the
mainshock. Not all mainshocks have foreshocks.
Magnitude: The magnitude is a number that characterizes the
relative size of an earthquake. Magnitude is based on measurement
of the maximum motion recorded by a seismograph. Several scales
have been defined, but the most commonly used are (1) local
magnitude (ML), commonly referred to as "Richter magnitude," (2)
surface-wave magnitude (Ms), (3) body-wave magnitude (Mb), and
(4) moment magnitude (Mw). Scales 1-3 have limited range and
applicability and do not satisfactorily measure the size of the largest
earthquakes. The moment magnitude (Mw) scale, based on the
concept of seismic moment, is uniformly applicable to all sizes of
earthquakes but is more difficult to compute than the other types.
All magnitude scales should yield approximately the same value for
any given earthquake.
 SEISMOLOGICAL TERMS

Intensity: The intensity is a number (written as a

Roman numeral) describing the severity of an
earthquake in terms of its effects on the earth's
surface and on humans and their structures. Several
scales exist, but the ones most commonly used in the
United States are the Modified Mercalli scale and the
Rossi-Forel scale. There are many intensities for an
earthquake, depending on where you are, unlike the
magnitude, which is one number for each earthquake.
 PLATE TECTONICS
PLATE TECTONICS theory is young (1960s)
It provides answers to the most fundamental
questions in seismology:

 Why earthquakes occur?

 Why are earthquake epicenters not
uniformly distributed around the globe?
 At what depths are their foci?
TECTONIC PLATES
• Tectonic plates are
large parts of
litosphere ‘floating’
on the astenosphere

• Convection currents move them around with velocities of

several cm/year.
• The plates interact with one another in three basic ways:

1. They collide
2. They move away from each other
3. They slide one past another
MAJOR TECTONIC PLATES
 INTERACTING PLATES

• Collision leads to
SUBDUCTION of one
plate under another.
Mountain ranges may
also be formed
(Himalayas, Alps...).
• It produces strong and
sometimes very deep
earthquakes (up to
700 km).
• Volcanoes also occur EXAMPLES: Nazca – South America
there. Eurasia – Pacific
INTERACTING PLATES

• Plates moving past each

other do so along the
TRANSFORM FAULTS.
• The earthquakes may be
very strong.

EXAMPLES: San Andreas Fault

(Pacific – North American plate)
 HOW EARTHQUAKES OCCUR?

• Earthquakes occur at FAULTS.

• Fault is a weak zone separating two
geological blocks.
• Tectonic forces
cause the blocks
to move relative
one to another.
 WELL KNOW FAULTS

• San Andreas Fault

300-km-long, strike slip of 6.4m
Caused San Francisco Earthquake of 1906 (M=8.3)
• Imperial Valley Earthquake of 1940
Caused by 60-km-long 5m right lateral shift
• Nobi Earthquake, Japan, 1981
Caused by 80-km-long 6m vertical slip and a 2to 4
m horizontal slip,
(M=8.4)
 WELL KNOW FAULTS

• Kansu Earthquake, China, 1920

200-km-long left lateral fault (M=8.5)
• Kobe, Japan
• Northridge, California
• Chelungpu, Taiwan
• MBT PAKISTAN
HOW EARTHQUAKES OCCUR?
ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY
 HOW EARTHQUAKES OCCUR?
ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY

• Because of friction, the blocks do not slide, but are deformed.

• When the stresses within rocks exceed friction, rupture occurs.
• Elastic energy, stored in the system, is released after rupture in
waves that radiate outward from the fault.
 EARTHQUAKE WAVES

• When rupture along a fault occurs, the

sudden release of energy sets off vibrations
in the Earth’s Crust

• These vibrations can travel both within the

earth’s material (body waves) and on the
earth’s surface (surface waves).

• P-waves travel by compression and dilations

in the direction of propagation, and have the
fastest speed (several miles/sec). These
waves travel through both solid and liquid.
 EARTHQUAKE WAVES

 As the depth below the ground surface increases, the

wave amplitudes become less and less.

 There are two types of surface waves during the

earthquake. Love waves’ motion is similar to S-wave
horizontally polarized, except that its effects die out as
depth increases. Raleigh waves are similar to a rolling
ocean wave. Material disturbed by Raleigh wave moves
in elliptical path in the vertical plane containing the
direction of propagation.

 Surface waves travel more slowly than body waves, with

Love waves being generally faster than Raleigh waves.
 EARTHQUAKE WAVES

 The transverse waves travel by shear distortions

normal to the direction of propagation. Although
they are denoted S for Secondary waves, they
transmit more energy than the P-waves.

 S-waves are plane polarized. Those that cause

motion in the vertical plane containing the direction
of propagation are called SV waves; horizontal
waves are called SH waves.

 Surface waves are so called because their motion is

restricted to close to the ground surface.
 ELASTIC WAVES – BODY WAVES
LONGITUDINAL WAVES:

• They are faster than transversal waves and thus arrive

first.
• The particles oscillate in the direction of spreading of the
wave.
• Compressional waves
• P-waves
TRANSVERSAL WAVES:

• The particles oscillate in the direction perpendicular to the

spreading direction.
• Shear waves – they do not propagate through solids (e.g.
through the outer core).
• S-waves
 ELASTIC WAVES – BODY WAVES

P-waves:

S-waves:
 ELASTIC WAVES – SURFACE WAVES

Surface waves: Rayleigh and Love waves

• Their amplitude diminishes with the depth.
• They have large amplitudes and are slower than
body waves.
• These are dispersive waves (large periods are faster).
SEISMOGRAM Earthquake in Japan
Station in Germany
Magnitude 6.5

P S surface waves

Up-Down

N-S

E-W
 SEISMOGRAPHS

• Seismographs are devices that record

ground motion during earthquakes.

• The first seismographs were constructed at

the very end of the 19th century in Italy and
Germany.
SEISMOGRAPHS
(HISTORICAL)

Horizontal 1000 kg Wiechert

seismograph in Zagreb
(built in 1909)
 SEISMOGRAPHS
(MODERN)

• Modern digital broadband

seismographs are capable of
recording almost the whole
seismological spectrum (50 Hz –
300 s).

• Their resolution of 24 bits (high

dynamic range) allows for precise
recording of small quakes, as well
as unsaturated registration of the
largest ones.
 OBSERVATIONAL SEISMOLOGY
MACRO SEISMOLOGY

 MACROSEISMOLOGY deals with effects of earthquakes

on humans, animals, objects and surroundings.
 The data are collected by field trips into the shaken area,
and/or by questionaires sent there.
 The effects are then expressed as earthquake INTENSITY
at each of the studied places.
 Intensity is graded according to macroseismic scales –
Mercalli-Cancani-Sieberg (MCS), Medvedev-Sponheuer-
Karnik (MSK), Modified Mercalli (MM), European
Macroseismic Scale (EMS).
 This is a subjective method.
 OBSERVATIONAL SEISMOLOGY
LOCATING EARTHQUAKES

• To locate an earthquake
we need precise
readings of the times
when P and S-waves
arrive at a number of
seismic stations.
• Accurate absolute timing
(with a precission of 0.01
s) is essential in
seismology!
 OBSERVATIONAL SEISMOLOGY
LOCATING EARTHQUAKES

• Knowing the difference in

arrival times of the two
waves, and knowing their
velocity, we may
calculate the distance of
the epicentre.
• This is done using the
travel-time curves which
show how long does it
take for P- and S-waves
to reach some epicentral
distance.
 OBSERVATIONAL SEISMOLOGY
LOCATING EARTHQUAKES

Another example of
picking arrival times
 OBSERVATIONAL SEISMOLOGY
LOCATING EARTHQUAKES

• After we know the

distance of epicentre
from at least three
stations we may find the
epicentre like this
• There are more
sophisticated methods of
locating positions of
earthquake foci. This is a
classic example of an
inverse problem.
 OBSERVATIONAL SEISMOLOGY
MAGNITUDE DETERMINATION
• Besides the position of the
epicentre and the depth of
focus, the earthquake
magnitude is another defining
element of each earthquake.
• Magnitude (defined by
Charles Richter in 1935) is
proportional to the amount of
energy released from the
focus.
• Magnitude is calculated from
the amplitudes of ground
motion as measured from the
seismograms. You also need
to know the epicentral distance
to take attenuation into
account.
 OBSERVATIONAL SEISMOLOGY
MAGNITUDE DETERMINATION

Formula:
M = log(A) + c1 log (D) + c2
where A is amplitude of ground motion, D is epicentral
distance, and c1, c2 are constants.

• There are many types of magnitude in seismological

practice, depending which waves are used to measure
the amplitude:
ML, mb, Mc, Ms, Mw, ...
• Increase of 1 magnitude unit means ~32 times more
released seismic energy!
OBSERVATIONAL SEISMOLOGY
SOME STATISTICS

Magnitude Effects Number per year

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––
less than 2 Not felt by humans. Recorded by instruments
only. Numerous
2 Felt only by the most sensitive.
Suspended objects swing >1 000 000
3 Felt by some people. Vibration like a
passing heavy vehicle 100 000
4 Felt by most people. Hanging objects swing.
Dishes and windows rattle and may break  12 000
5 Felt by all; people frightened.
Chimneys topple; furniture moves 1 400
6 Panic. Buildings may suffer substantial
damage 160
7-8 Widespread panic. Few buildings remain
standing. Large landslides; fissures in ground 20
8-9 Complete devastation. Ground waves ~2
 OBSERVATIONAL SEISMOLOGY
SOME STATISTICS

Equivalent
Magnitude Event Energy (tons TNT)
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
2.0 Large quary blast 1
2.5 Moderate lightning bolt 5
3.5 Large ligtning bolt 75
4.5 Average tornado 5 100
6.0 Hiroshima atomic bomb 20 000
7.0 Largest nuclear test 32 000 000
7.7 Mt. Saint Helens eruption 100 000 000
8.5 Krakatoa eruption 1 000 000 000
9.5 Chilean earthquake 1960 32 000 000 000
OBSERVATIONAL SEISMOLOGY
SOME STATISTICS
 OBSERVATIONAL SEISMOLOGY
MACROSEISMOLOGY
European Macroseismic Intensity Scale

INTENSITY SHORT DESCRIPTION

I Not felt Not felt, even under the most favourable circumstances.
II Scarcely felt Vibration is felt only by individual people at rest in
houses, especially on upper floors of buildings.
III Weak The vibration is weak and is felt indoors by a few people. People at
rest feel a swaying or light trembling.
IV Largely The earthquake is felt indoors by many people, outdoors by very
observed few. A few people are awakened. The level of vibration is not fright-
ening. Windows, doors and dishes rattle. Hanging objects swing.
V Strong The earthquake is felt indoors by most, outdoors by few. Many
sleeping people awake. A few run outdoors. Buildings tremble
throughout. Hanging objects swing considerably. China and glasses
clatter together. The vibration is strong. Top heavy objects topple
over. Doors and windows swing open or shut.
INTENSITY SHORT DESCRIPTION
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
VI Slightly Felt by most indoors and by many outdoors. Many people in
damaging buildings are frightened and run outdoors. Small objects fall. Slight
damage to many ordinary buildings e.g. fine cracks in plaster and
small pieces of plaster fall.
VII Damaging Most people are frightened and run outdoors. Furniture is shifted and
objects fall from shelves in large numbers. Many ordinary buildings
suffer moderate damage: small cracks in walls; partial collapse of
chimneys.
VIII Heavily Furniture may be overturned. Many ordinary buildings suffer
damaging damage: chimneys fall; large cracks appear in walls and a few
buildings may partially collapse.
IX Destructive Monuments and columns fall or are twisted. Many ordinary
buildings partially collapse and a few collapse completely.
X Very Many ordinary buildings collapse.
destructive
XI Devastating Most ordinary buildings collapse.
XII Completely Practically all structures above and below ground are
devastating heavily damaged or destroyed.
OBSERVATIONAL SEISMOLOGY
MACROSEISMOLOGY

 Results of macroseismic surveys are

presented on isoseismal maps.
 Isoseismals are curves connecting
the places with same intensities.

 DO NOT CONFUSE INTENSITY AND

MAGNITUDE!
 Just approximately, epicentral
intensity is: Io = M + 2

 One earthquake has just one

magnitude, but many intensities!
PHYSICAL SEISMOLOGY

 Our knowledge about the

structure of the Earth
deeper than several km was
gained almost exclusively
using seismological
methods.
 Seismologists use seismic
rays to look into the interior
of the Earth in the same
way doctors use X-rays.
PHYSICAL SEISMOLOGY

Seismic waves get reflected, refracted and converted on

many discontinuities within the earth thus forming
numerous seismic phases. The rays also bend because
the velocity of elsastic waves changes with depth.
 PHYSICAL SEISMOLOGY

FORWARD PROBLEM:
 Given the distribution of velocity, density and
attenuation coefficient with depth, and positions of all
discontinuities, calculate travel times and amplitudes of
some seismic phase (e.g. pP or SKS).
This is relatively easy and always gives unique
solution.
 PHYSICAL SEISMOLOGY

INVERSE PROBLEM:
 Given the arrival times and amplitudes of several
seismic phases on a number of stations, compute
distribution of velocity, density and attenuation
coefficient with depth, and positions of all
discontinuities.
 This is very difficult and often does not give a unique
solution. Instead, a range of solutions is offered, each
with its own probability of being correct. The solution is
better the more data we have.
 ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY

 Earthquakes are the only natural

disasters that are mostly harmless to
humans! The only danger comes
from buildings designed not to
withstand the largest possible
earthquakes in the area.
 Engineering seismology provides
civil engineers parameters they need
in order to construct seismically safe
and sound structures.
 Engineering seismology is a bridge
between seismology and earthquake
Izmit, Turkey, 1999
engineering.
 ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY

In order to estimate the Engineering parameters,

seismologists need:
 Complete earthquake catalogues that extend
well into the past,
 Information on the soil structure and
properties at the construction site, as well as
on the path between epicentre and the site,
 Records of strong earthquakes and small
events from near-by epicentral regions,
 Results of geological surveys
 ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY

ENGINEERING PARAMETERS MAY BE ESTIMATED BY:

1. PROBABILISTIC APPROACH –use statistical methods to
assess probability of exceeding a predefined level of
ground motion in some time period (earthquake return
period), based on earthquake history and geological data.
2. DETERMINISTIC APPROACH – use a predefined
earthquake and calculate its effects and parameters of
seismic forces on the construction site. This is very difficult
to do because the site is in the near-field (close to the fault)
and most of the approximations you normally use are not
valid.
3. A combination of the two
 ROLL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEER

• The design earthquake should be a

magnitude M earthquake on the F fault with
recurrence interval of Y years, or

• The earthquake hazard is represented by a

magnitude M earthquake within 25 miles of
the site, with probability P of occurrence
during a 100 year interval.
 INFORMATION REQUIRED BY
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS REQUIRE

• How energy is released

• How energy is transmitted over large areas

• The structure and nature of the earth's interior

• Assessing the likelihood of large earthquakes in

certain regions

• Dimension of the original disturbance

• Overall movement involved

 ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY

Most common input parameters are:

- maximal expected horizontal ground
acceleration (PGA)
- maximal expected horizontal ground
velocity (PGV)
- maximal expected horizontal ground
displacement (PGD)
- response spectra (SA)
- maximal expected intensity (Imax)
- duration of significant shaking
- dominant period of shaking.
 Engineering seismologists mostly use Accelerogram of the Ston-Slano
records of ground acceleration obtained (Croatia, M = 6.0, 1996) event
by strong-motion accelerographs.
 ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY

Complete and homogeneous

earthquake catalogues are of
paramount importance in
seismic hazard studies.

Seismicity of Croatia after the Croatian

Earthquake Catalogue that lists over
15.000 events
ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY

Examples of
probabilistic hazard
assessment in
Croatia
Probability of exceeding
intensity VII °MSK in any
50 years (Zagreb area)
Earthquake hazard in Southern
Croatia (Dalmatia) in terms of
PGA for 4 return periods
 PHYSICAL SEISMOLOGY

INVERSE PROBLEM:
 Given the arrival times and amplitudes of several
seismic phases on a number of stations, compute
distribution of velocity, density and attenuation
coefficient with depth, and positions of all
discontinuities.
 This is very difficult and often does not give a unique
solution. Instead, a range of solutions is offered, each
with its own probability of being correct. The solution
is better the more data we have.
POSSIBLE WAYS IN WHICH A STRONG EARTHQUAKE
MAY CAUSE FAILURE TO AN EARTH DAM

• Disruption of dam by major fault movement in foundation.

• loss of freeboard due to differential tectonic ground
movements.
• Loss of freeboard due to slop failures or soil compaction.
• Slop failures induced by ground motions.
• Sliding of dam on weak foundation mateluals.
• Piping failure through cracks induced by ground motions.
• Over topping of dam due to seiches in reservoir or rockfalls into
reservoir.
• Failure of spillway or outlet work.
• Liquefaction of sediment delta formation in the lake.
WAPDA TELEMETRY SEISMIC NETWORKS
TARBELA,MANGLA & DIAMER BASHA

OBJECTIVES
• Acquisition of high quality of micro ( Mag. < 3.0) and macro
(Mag.>3.0) seismic data to observe the induced seismic behavior
due to reservoir fluctuation i.e. abrupt rate of change of
earthquakes w.r.t reservoir loading / unloading.

• To observe tile seismic behavior of existing tectonic (structural)

features i.e. to reach the decision regarding whether or not a
known existing faults in the region are active.

• To identify the location of fault/faults having no surface expression

in the area.
 WAPDA TELEMETRY SEISMIC NETWORKS
TARBELA,MANGLA & DIAMER BASHA

OBJECTIVES

• Review of the seismic risk existing in the area for the

safety of the project.

• Make a seismic catalog of data so that risk factors for

existing and future WAPDA projects in the northern areas
are computed.

• Calculate the max. credible earthquakes that could occur

along the known faults.
 WAPDA TELEMETRY SEISMIC NETWORKS
TARBELA,MANGLA & DIAMER BASHA

OBJECTIVES

• To observe the acceleration response (g-value) of the

main embankment dam ( at crest, mid height, toe and
D/S toe) due to strong shaking.

• Seismic zoning of the area.

• To use the seismic data for research purpose.

• To determine the free field ground motion (g-value) at

rock and alluvium.
 EARTHQUAKE DRILLS AT
TARBELA,MANGLA & DIAMER BASHA

Earthquake felt around the Dams can be potentially damaging

depending on their intensity and duration of shaking. a tremor with
intensities of vi or higher on modified Mercalli (M.M) Intensity scale will
cause visible damage. therefore, emergency drill must be called for.

OBJECTIVES:
• To take immediate actions to assess the damages.

• To take necessary actions to lessen or prevent the consequences

of damages around the Dams and down stream areas.

• To evaluate the remedial actions for restoring of functional

adequacy of damaged project features as soon as possible.
 RESULTS ACHIEVED
• Seismic zoning of area around Tarbela, Mangla and Diamer
Basha Dams were carried out.

• Seismic hazard values of different structures was re-

calculated.
• Data has been supplied to the consultants for carrying out
the new seismic zoning of Pakistan.
• Data is supplied to various national & international
universities, for their MSc, MPhil & PHD students.
• Many research paper s/report s have been written.
 RESERVOIR INDUCED SEISMICITY

• Reorganization in Seismicity is generally confined up

to shallow depths i.e. 20 km. and limited to a radial
distance of about 50 km.

• Increased seismic activity associated with rapid

filling/depleting is a direct effect of loading/unloading
through either shear stress or increased pore pressure.
These induced events are mostly of low magnitude.
However, after quiescence in Seismicity, felt events
may occur with magnitudes up to 5.5.
 RESERVOIR INDUCED SEISMICITY

• A delayed RIS can occur due to the result increased

pore pressure through diffusion of water pressures
into hypocentral regions. The delayed earthquakes
are of high magnitudes and may sometimes have
epicenters that are tens of km. away from the
reservoir.

• The aftershock ‘b’ values are higher than ‘b’ values

for normal seismic events sequences of the region
concerned. These aftershocks have a comparatively
slow rate of decay.

• The magnitude ratio of the largest aftershock to the

Mainshock is higher and is order of 0.9.
 RESERVOIR INDUCED SEISMICITY
• In some cases the seismic activity starts soon after the
beginning of the impounding and grows with the
reservoir levels. However, this could be the result of
operation of a seismographic network, which generally
coincides with the commencement of reservoir
impounding and gives a more detailed record of seismic
events.

• The observed Intensities are sharply decreasing with the

distances from the epicenters, which usually cluster
around the reservoir. This aspect along with acoustic
phenomena associated with triggered Seismicity
indicates a shallow activity.
 RESERVOIR INDUCED SEISMICITY
• It has been shown that instantaneously triggered response
is due to added weight influence, while the delayed
triggering is linked with slower pore pressure propagations.
In some cases, large magnitudes at greater depths are
also triggered in this way.

• There is a trend indicating that greater time differences

between the start of impounding and the maximum-
triggered shock entail larger maximum shock.

• It is noticed that more triggered events are usually linked

to normal and strike-slip faults than to thrust faults.
EXAMPLES OF RESERVOIR INDUCED
SEISMICITY AT SOME DAMS
RESERVOIR ELEVATION 1995 TO 2004

1975 TO 1984 1985 TO 1994

 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

IT is the application of the geologic sciences to

engineering practice for the purpose of assuring that the
geologic factors affecting the location, design,
construction, operation and maintenance of engineering
works are recognized and adequately provided for.
WHEN ARE ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL
STUDIES TAKEN

These may be performed during the planning, , C

ivil Engineering Design, and construction phases of
public and private works projects
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGISTS

Investigate and provide geologic and geotechnical

recommendations, analysis, and design

Engineering geologists also provide geologic data on

topograpic maps, aerial photographs, geologic maps,
Geographic Information System (GIS) maps, or other map
bases
 ASSIGNMENT OF
ENGINEERING GEOLOGISTS

Engineering Geologists are involved in

geologic hazards, geotechnical, material
properties, landslide and slope stability,
erosion, flooding, de-watering ,etc.
 OBJECTIVE OF
ENGINEERING GEOLOGIST

Their overall objective is the protection of life and

property against damage and the solution of geologic
problems
 APPLICATIONS
OF
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

A few applications of Engineering

Geology are residential, commercial and industrial developments
Governmental and military installations

Public works such as a power plant, wind turbine,

transmission line, sewage treatment plant,water treatment
plant, pipeline (aqueduct, sewer, outfall) tunnel trenchless
construction, canal, dam, reservoir, building, railroad,
transit, highway, railroad, transit, highway, highway, bridge,
airport and park
 APPLICATIONS
OF
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

• Mine and quarry excavations, mine tailing dam,

mine reclamation and mine tunneling

• wetland and habitat restoration programs

• Coastal engineering, sand replenishment, bluff or

sea cliff stability, harbor, pier and waterfront
development

• Offshore outfall, drilling platform and sub-sea

pipeline, sub-sea cable
 GEOLOGIC HAZARD
AND
ADVERSE GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS

Typical geologic hazards or other adverse conditions

evaluated by an engineering geologist include:

• fault rupture on seismically active faults landslide, mudflow, rock fall

and avalanche hazards.

• Unstable slopes and slope stability erosion

• Ground subsidence (such as due to ground water withdrawal,

sinkhole collapse, cave collapse, decomposition of organic soils,
and tectonic movement)
 GEOLOGIC HAZARD AND
ADVERSE GEOLOGICAL
CONDITIONS

Volcanic hazards (volcanic eruptions, hot springs,

pyroclastic flows, debris flows, debris avalanche,
gas emissions, volcanic earthquakes) weak and
collapsible soils shallow ground water/seepage
 NEEDOF AN
ENGINEERING GEOLOGIST

May be called upon to evaluate the

excavatability (i.e. rippability) of earth
(rock) materials to assess the need for
pre-blasting during earthwork
construction, as well as associated
impacts due to vibration during blasting
on projects.
 METHODS USED
BY
ENGINEERING GEOLOGISTS

Geologic field mapping of geologic structures,

geologic formations, soil units and hazards
The review of geologic literature, geologic maps,
geotechnical reports, engineering plans,
environmental reports, stereoscopic aerial
photographs, remote sensing data, Global
Positioning System (GPS) data, topographic maps
and satellite imagery
 METHODS USED
BY
ENGINEERING GEOLOGISTS

• The excavation, sampling and logging of earth/rock

materials in drilled borings, test pits and trenches,
fault trenching, and bulldozer pits

• deformation monitoring as the systematic

measurement and tracking of the alteration in the
shape or dimensions of an object as a result of the
application of stress to it manually or with an
automatic deformation monitoring system
 REPORTS PRODUCED
BY
ENGINEERING GEOLOGISTS

• The field work is typically culminated in analysis

of the data and the preparation of reports such
as Geotechnical report, Fault hazard report

• Ground water resource report or

hydrogeologic report.

• An engineering geologic report describes the

objectives, methodology, references cited, tests
performed, findings and recommendations for
development