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 HOMEOSTASIS

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 D Dr Hira Kiyani
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About 50% to 70% of the adult human body is water
solution of ions and other substances.

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2/3 fluid is inside the cells = intracellular fluid/ ICF

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1/3 is in the spaces outside the cells = ECF/ extracellular
fluid.

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ECF is in constant motion, transported rapidly in the

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circulating blood & then mixed between blood & tissue

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fluids by diffusion.

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So all cells live in essentially the same environment—the
ECF or the internal environment of the body.
 DISTRIBUTION OF WATER
Intracellular fluid (ICF) 2/3 of TBW Major cations, K+ and Mg2.

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Major anions are protein and organic phosphates.
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Extracellular fluid (ECF) is 1/3 of TBW Composed of interstitial
fluid and plasma. Major cation is Na+. Major anions are Cl– and
HCO3–.

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Plasma is ¼ of the ECF & major plasma proteins are

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albumin and globulins.
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Interstitial fluid is 3/4th of the ECF. Its composition is same as
that of plasma except that it has little protein.
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The extracellular fluid sodium, chloride, bicarbonate ions plus
nutrients such as oxygen, glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids

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plus carbon dioxide that is being transported from cells to lungs

the kidneys.
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plus other cellular waste products that are being transported to

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The intracellular fluid contains large amounts of potassium,

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magnesium, and phosphate ions.

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Special mechanisms exist to transport ions through cell
membranes & maintain ionic concentration differences between
ECF & ICF.
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The term HOMEOSTASIS describes the maintenance of nearly
constant conditions in the internal environment All organs and

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all tissues of the body perform functions that help maintain
these relatively constant conditions.

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Powerful control systems exist for maintaining concentrations

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of almost all ions, nutrients, and substances in the body at levels

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that permit the cells, tissues, and organs to perform their normal

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functions, despite wide environmental variations and challenges

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from injury and diseases.
 CONTROL SYSTEMS OF THE BODY
The human body has thousands of control systems & the most

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intricate is genetic control systems operating in all cells to help

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regulate intracellular and extra -cellular functions.
Many other control systems operate within the organs to

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regulate functions of the individual parts of the organs.

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Others operate throughout the entire body to control the

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interrelationships between the organs.

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 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

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In systems controlled by negative feedback the response

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decreases the effect of the original stimulus & thus restores

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homeostasis.
Our body temperature is controlled by -ve feedback. When body

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temperature falls below normal, it is detected by temperature

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sensitive nerve endings, which transmit this information to the

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hypothalamus, which then activates mechanisms to raise body

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temperature by different compensatory mechanisms
Compensatory mechanisms :-

 Shivering,

Narrowing of the blood vessels in the skin

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Behavior to put on more clothes & heater.
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When body temperature becomes normal, temperature

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sensitive nerve endings no longer stimulate the cells of

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hypothalamus and output of this centre ceases.
Most of the homeostatic controls in the body use

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negative feedback mechanisms to prevent sudden and
serious changes in the internal environment.
 POSITIVE FEED BACK MECHANISM

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These are amplifier or cascade systems in the body. In it

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the stimulus progressively increases the response, that

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is, as long as stimulus continues, the response is
amplified. Examples:- Blood clotting and parturition.

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During labor, uterine contractions are stimulated by the

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oxytocin. This pushes the baby's head into the cervix,

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stimulating stretch receptors there. Stretch causes more

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oxytocin to be released, this strengthens contractions
and maintains labor until the baby is born.
 FEED FORWARD CONTROL SYSTEM

Some movements of body occur very rapidly & there is not

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enough time for nerve signals to travel from peripheral

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parts of body to the brain and then back again to control
the movement. Therefore, the brain uses feed-forward

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control, to cause required muscle contractions. Sensory

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nerve signals go from the moving parts & apprise the

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brain if the movement performed is correct. If not, brain

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corrects the feed-forward signals & sends it to the
muscles, next time it is required.
 DISRUPTION OF HOMEOSTASIS
Despite control mechanisms, when one or more of the

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body’s systems malfunction, homeostasis is disrupted and

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all cells suffer, as there is no longer an optimal internal
environment to live in and function & various

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pathophysiological states can develop.

The term Pathophysiology means abnormal functioning

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of the body associated with disease.

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Health professionals must comprehend what’s wrong and
what needs to be done to correct the situation.
 PATHOGENESIS
The main processes causing illness or disease are :-

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• Inflammation is a tissue response to damage by trauma
or invasion of microbes.

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Inflammatory conditions are recognized by the suffix

-itis, e.g. appendicitis.

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 Tumors arise when the rate of cell production exceeds

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that of normal cell destruction causing a mass to

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develop.

Tumors are denoted by the suffix -oma, e.g. carcinoma.

 Abnormal immune mechanisms are a response of the
normally protective immune system causing undesirable
effects.

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Thrombosis, embolism and infarction are a result of
abnormal changes in blood and/or blood vessel walls.

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Degeneration is associated with normal aging.

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Metabolic abnormalities can also cause undesirable

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effects, e.g. phenylketonuria.

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Genetic abnormalities may be either inherited or
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caused due to exposure to ionising radiation.

 CAUSES OF DISEASE (ETIOLOGY)

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Disease is usually caused by one or more of a limited
number of factors including :-

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• Genetic abnormalities, may be inherited or acquired.
• Infection can be caused by (microbes) parasites,
viruses, bacteria or worms.

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• Chemicals.

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• Ionising radiation.

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• Physical trauma.
• Degeneration can be due to excessive use or aging.
Osmolarity is number of solute particles per liter OR

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Osmolarity is number of osmoles of solute /liter.

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It is called osmolarity when it is expressed as osmoles

per liter of solution.

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It is called osmolality when it is expressed as osmoles

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per kilogram of water.

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In dilute solutions such as the body fluids, these two

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terms can be used almost synonymously because the
differences are small.
 If a cell is placed in a ISOTONIC SOLUTION of impermeant
solutes with an osmolarity of 282 mOsm /L, the cells

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do not shrink or swell. This is because the

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water concentration in ICF & ECF is equal & the solutes

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cannot enter or leave the cell.

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Such a solution is said to be ISOTONIC (same osmotic

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pressure) it neither shrinks nor swells the cells, as no

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water either enters or leaves the cell. .

Example - 0.9% solution of NaCl or a 5% glucose solution.

 If a cell is placed in a HYPOTONIC SOLUTION, having a lower
concentration of impermeant solutes (<282 mOsm/L), water

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will diffuse into the cell, causing it to swell.

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Solutions of less than 0.9% NaCl are hypotonic.
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If a cell is placed in a HYPERTONIC SOLUTION having a higher

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concentration of impermeant solutes, water will flow out of

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the cell into the ECF & causing the cell to shrink.

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NaCl solutions of more than 0.9% are hypertonic. 

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 ISOSMOTIC SOLUTIONS
The term isosmotic refer to whether a solution will cause

a change in cell volume.

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Tonicity of solutions depends on concentration of impermeant
solutes.

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Some solutes can permeate the cell membrane, while

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others cannot.

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Solutions having the same osmolarity as the cell are

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called ISOSMOTIC regardless of whether the solute can
penetrate the cell membrane.
 HYPEROSMOTIC & HYPOOSMOTIC SOLUTIONS

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These terms refer to solutions having a higher or lower

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osmolarity (more or less solutes per liter) respectively,

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compared with the normal ECF, without regard whether the

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solute permeates the cell membrane.

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Highly permeating substances, such as urea, can cause

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transient shifts in fluid volume between ICF & ECF but, given
enough time, the concentrations of this substance become

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equal on both sides & have little effect on ICF. 
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Thank you  

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