MODERN TRENDS IN

MANUFACTURING
Module 5
Virtual and Augmented
Reality
◦ In the context of manufacturing and product design Virtual Reality (VR) digitally
simulates a product or environment, often with the user being able to interact and
immerse themselves within it.
◦ With Augmented Reality (AR) the digital product or information is projected on
to a real world background, rather than a digitally simulated one like VR.
◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XLP4YTpUpBI
◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dq2RSlslQcU&t=115s
◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZuZ1SQwlybI&t=48s
Virtual and Augmented Reality
for Design Development
◦ From a product development perspective VR and AR help to refine and optimise designs at an
early stage.
◦ Concepts and options can be reviewed, adjusted and modified quickly.
◦ Digital models can also be virtually tested, analysed and simulated with tools like FEA and CFD.
The result is rapid iterative design cycles and ultimately great products. Importantly you can get
cross-functional team input, including potential clients.
◦ VR and AR make animated simulations possible so you can see how products will be used over
time.
◦ This is invaluable if you are serious about understanding how products will be used, with factors
like ergonomics, access, look and feel coming into play.
◦ Anybody can understand a life-like simulation, whereas 2D engineering drawings and more
complex 3D models can be difficult to interpret if you do not possess a technical background.
◦ Ultimately VR and AR aid communication and buy-in during product development. The result is
reduced technical risk, with a greater probability components and products will be fit for
purpose.
Virtual and Augmented
Reality for Production
◦ Manufacturing and production have huge amounts to gain from VR and AR. Businesses are
now planning their production and assembly processes out in full in a virtual world. In turn
this is used to speed up factory and plant commissioning and operation. In practical terms
manufacturers have used virtual and augmented reality to the following:
• Structure and optimise the location and flow of production lines.
• Position automation lines, robots, production cells and importantly people, to maximise
productivity and efficiency, as well as reduce inventory.
• Operate and handle virtual tools and equipment. Rehearse and train staff for the real thing.
• Factor in the ideal ergonomics for fitters, technicians and other operatives in terms of reach,
leaning, twisting and bending. 
• Plan around support pillars, lighting, heating and air-conditionning.
• Factor in access for maintenance, cleaning and line-side delivery.
• Scan in an existing factory environment and lay it out with new virtual production lines and
equipment.
Failure Modes & Effects Analysis
◦ The Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA), also known as Failure Modes, Effects, and
Criticality Analysis (FMECA), is a systematic method by which potential failures of a product or
process design are identified, analysed and documented.
◦ Once identified, the effects of these failures on performance and safety are recognised, and appropriate
actions are taken to eliminate or minimise the effects of these failures.
◦ An FMEA is a crucial reliability tool that helps avoid costs incurred from product failure and liability.
◦ The FMEA process is an on-going, bottom-up approach typically utilised in three areas of product
realization and use, namely design, manufacturing and service.
◦ A design FMEA examines potential product failures and the effects of these failures to the end user,
while a manufacturing or process FMEA examines the variables that can affect the quality of a process.
◦ The aim of a service FMEA is to prevent the misuse or misrepresentation of the tools and materials used
in servicing a product.
The main elements of the FMEA are:
• The failure mode that describes the way in which a design fails to perform as intended or according to
specification;
• The effect or the impact on the customer resulting from the failure mode; and
• the cause(s) or means by which an element of the design resulted in a failure mode.
The following ten steps provide a basic approach that can be followed in order to conduct a basic FMEA.
An example of a table lamp is used to help illustrate the process.
Step 1: Identify components and associated functions
The first step of an FMEA is to identify all of the components to be evaluated. This may include all of the
parts that constitute the product or, if the focus is only part of a product, the parts that make up the
applicable sub-assemblies. The function(s) of each part within in the product are briefly described.
Step 2: Identify failure modes
◦ The potential failure mode(s) for each part are identified. Failure modes can include but are not limited
to:
• complete failures • intermittent failures
• partial failures • failures over time
• incorrect operation • premature operation
• failure to cease functioning at allotted time
• failure to function at allotted time
It is important to consider that a part may have more than one mode of failure.
Step 3: Identify effects of the failure modes
◦ For each failure mode identified, the consequences or effects on product, property and people are listed.
These effects are best described as seen though the eyes of the customer
◦ Step 4: Determine severity of the failure mode
◦ The severity or criticality rating indicates how significant of an impact the effect is on the customer.
◦ Severity can range from insignificant to risk of fatality.
◦ Depending on the FMEA method employed, severity is usually given either a numeric rating or a coded
rating. The advantage of a numeric rating is the ability to be able to calculate the Risk Priority Number
(RPN) (see Step 9).
◦ Severity ratings can be customised as long as they are well defined, documented and applied consistently.
◦ Step 5: Identify cause(s) of the failure mode
◦ For each mode of failure, causes are identified. These causes can be design deficiencies that result in
performance failures., or induce manufacturing errors.
◦ Step 6: Determine probability of occurrence
◦ This step involves determining or estimating the probability that a given cause or failure mode will occur.
◦ The probability of occurrence can be determined from field data or history of previous products. If this
information is not available, a subjective rating is made based on the experience and knowledge of the
cross-functional experts.
◦ Two of the methods used for rating the probability of occurrence are a numeric ranking and a relative
probability of failure.
◦ As with a numeric severity rating, a numeric probability of occurrence rating can be used in calculating
the RPN.
◦ If a relative scale is used, each failure mode is judged against the other failure modes.
◦ High, moderate, low and unlikely are ratings that can be used.
◦ As with severity ratings, probability of occurrence ratings can be customised if they are well defined,
documented and used consistently.
◦ Step 7: Identify controls
◦ Identify the controls that are currently in place that either prevent or detect the cause of the failure mode.
◦ Preventive controls either eliminate the cause or reduce the rate of occurrence.
◦ Controls that detect the cause allow for corrective action while controls that detect failure allow for
interception of the product before it reaches subsequent operations or the customer.
◦ Step 8: Determine effectiveness of current controls
◦ The control effectiveness rating estimates how well the cause or failure mode can be prevented or
detected.
◦ If more than one control is used for a given cause or failure mode, an effectiveness rating is given to the
group of controls.
◦ Control effectiveness ratings can be customised provided the guidelines as previously outlined for
severity and occurrence are followed.
◦ Step 9: Calculate Risk Priority Number (RPN)
◦ The RPN is an optional step that can be used to help prioritise failure modes for action.
◦ It is calculated for each failure mode by multiplying the numerical ratings of the severity, probability of
occurrence and the probability of detection (effectiveness of detection controls) (RPN=S x O x D).
◦ In general, the failure modes that have the greatest RPN receive priority for corrective action.
◦ The RPN should not firmly dictate priority as some failure modes may warrant immediate action
although their RPN may not rank among the highest.
◦ Step 10: Determine actions to reduce risk of failure mode
◦ Taking action to reduce risk of failure is the most crucial aspect of an FMEA.
◦ The FMEA should be reviewed to determine where corrective action should be taken, as well as what
action should be taken and when.
◦ Some failure modes will be identified for immediate action while others will be scheduled with targeted
completion dates.
◦ Conversely, some failure modes may not receive any attention or be scheduled to be reassessed at a later
date.
◦ Actions to resolve failures may take the form of design improvements, changes in component selection,
the inclusion of redundancy in the design, or incorporation design for safety aspects.
◦ Regardless of the recommended action, all should be documented, assigned and followed to completion.
OUTSOURCING
◦ A practice used by different companies to reduce costs by transferring portions of work to outside
suppliers rather than completing it internally.
◦ Outsourcing is an effective cost-saving strategy when used properly.
◦ It is sometimes more affordable to purchase a good from companies with comparative advantages than it
is to produce the good internally.
◦ An example of a manufacturing company outsourcing would be Dell buying some of its computer
components from another manufacturer in order to save on production costs.
◦ Alternatively, businesses may decide to outsource book-keeping and accounting duties to independent
accounting firms, as it may be cheaper than retaining an in-house accountant.
◦ Business operations that are commonly outsourced include:
 Cleaning
 Accounting and book keeping
 IT support and ICT maintenance
 Manufacturing, either component parts or complete products
◦ Generally, business functions and processes outsourced to an external company bring cost savings and/or
productivity gains.
◦ For example, a specialist accountancy firm may be contracted to prepare tax returns and investor reports
at a cost far less than having to employ an accountant to do this internally.
◦ Likewise, specialist manufacturers will be able to supply components and products far more cost
effectively and efficiently than a firm who does not have that area of expertise.
The best arguments/advantages made for
outsourcing are that:
 The quality of goods and services being provided can be exceptional, much better than a non-
specialist firm lacking specific software, hardware, capital equipment or the required human capital (skills
and knowledge).
 Organisations can concentrate on their core operations and functions, allowing them to focus on
what they are best at doing and reap productive and efficiency gains. It makes sense for Apple Inc. to run
brilliant research and development divisions, design great products and superb software, and employ clever
marketing to sell massive numbers of iPhones. There is no business case for it to also design and
manufacture the computer chips used in the phone.
 Often the subcontracting firms are able to achieve economies of scale, have much higher
productivity and thus have lower production costs by providing their services to multiple companies.
For example, one very little known fact is that the Nike, Reebok and Adidas while being locked into
intense competition, outsource their manufacturing to the same mega-factory in China. Their trainers are
made in the same factory!
The limitations of outsourcing include
 Loss of Managerial Control
Whether a firm signs a contract to have another company perform the function of an entire department or single
task, it is turning the management and control of that function over to another company. Yes, there will be a
contract, but the managerial control will belong to another company. It is likely the outsourcing company will
not be driven by the same standards and mission that drives the contracting company. They are driven to make a
profit from the services that they are providing to the firms contracting them.
 Hidden Costs
Anything not covered in the contract details of the service that they will be providing will be the basis for a firm
to pay additional charges. Additionally, firms will experience legal fees to retain a lawyer to review the contacts
signed. Remember, this is the outsourcing company's business. They have done this before and they are the ones
that write the contract and often firms will be at a disadvantage when negotiations start.
 Threat to Security and Confidentiality
The life-blood of any business is the information that keeps it running. If a firm has payroll, medical records or
any other confidential information that will be transmitted to the outsourcing company, there is a risk that the
confidentiality may be compromised. If the outsourced function involves sharing proprietary company data or
knowledge (e.g. product drawings, formulas, etc.), this must be taken into account. The outsourcing company
must be evaluated carefully to make sure data is protected and contracts have penalty clauses if an incident
occurs.
OFFSHORING
◦ The practice of basing some of a company's business functions (account and book-keeping),
processes (manufacturing) or services (IT solutions) overseas, usually so as to take advantage of
lower costs.
◦ Offshored functions can remain within the functional control and ownership of the business or they can
be entirely outsourced to a separate offshore organisation – this is termed offshore outsourcing.
◦ Offshoring is outsourcing to a firm in a different country.
◦ The same advantages apply, and these advantages can likely be boosted.
◦ Costs can be further reduced (a Philippine-based call centre is likely less expensive than one based in the
US. This could be from additional economies of scale being achieved, lower operating costs (especially
labour costs) and lower tax rates
◦ Manufacturing (production) and services are the two categories of offshoring.
◦ Call centres, IT and accountancy services are common examples of business functions that are offshored.
◦ Factories producing entire products or component products account for a much larger share of the
world’s offshored business processes than services do.
◦ Offshoring often gains negative publicity.
◦ Jobs in the home country are lost and environmental controls and labour regulations may be lax in some
countries – there has been a backlash over the exploitation of workers in general and women and children
specifically in many developing economies such as Bangladesh.
◦ Offshoring also comes with additional risks over outsourcing, especially political risks, increasing supply
chain complexity and fast-rising wages in developing countries.
◦ In China wages are growing at double digit rates whereas in many European countries average workers
have not seen a real wage increase in years.
◦ Venezuela and Argentina were perceived as being business friendly, in the last five years the
governments of this country have seized business operations of large firms with token compensation (if
any) being paid.
◦ Offshoring brings jobs, increased incomes and human capital investment to host countries.
◦ Both developing and developed economies compete to attract foreign direct investment because of the
advantages it brings.
◦ There are relatively few disadvantages to a host country as long as there is good industry regulation,
oversight and enforcement.
◦ Unfortunately, in many poor and corrupt countries this regulatory framework is inadequate or entirely
absent. Environmental and labour exploitation may then occur.
INSOURCING
◦ Assigning a project to a person or department within the company instead of hiring an outside
person or company to do the work.
◦ While outsourcing is commonly thought of as a way for companies to save money, it is sometimes more
cost effective to have the work done in-house.
◦ Another reason for insourcing is that a firm may not be happy with the quality of the service or
manufacturing they have outsourced.
◦ Bringing that process back ‘in house’ provides better control of the process at all levels as long as the
company has the resources and knowledge to re-establish these effectively.
◦ When previously offshored business functions or processes are insourced back to the country of
domicile, then this is termed re-shoring.
◦ As the relocation decision is likely to be costly, insourcing will not be entered into likely.
◦ In fact, industrial inertia (geographical) describes a stage at which an industry prefers to run in its former
location although the main alluring factors are gone.
BIONIC MANUFACTURING
SYSTEM
◦ Bionic manufacturing system has been emerged as a next generation manufacturing concept.
◦ Bionic Manufacturing System aims to deal with the unpredictable changes in complex manufacturing
environment based on biologically inspired ideas such as self organization, learning, evolution and
adaptation.
◦ It also covers the whole life cycle from planning to disposal.
◦ Bionic Manufacturing System has been connected with new field of computer science called as machine
learning, evolutionary computing, and artificial life.
◦ Biological organisms are capable of adapting themselves to environmental changes and sustain their own
life by various functions.
◦ These functions are self-organization, self-growth, self-recovery, and evolution.
◦ These functions of the organism are displayed by expressing two types of biological information give as
follows :
• Genetic Information : It evolves through generations (DNA Type), and
• Individually Learned Information : It is acquired during the lifetime of a single organism (BN Type).
◦ Amalgamating the biological features in an individual entity is one of the most important features that
make living system autonomous and adaptive.
◦ All the constituent system elements in Bionic Manufacturing System such as work material, machine,
tools, AGVs, Robots etc., acts as a autonomous organism.
◦ At floor level, products are developed from raw materials expressing their own DNA type information.
◦ Manufacturing equipment breeds the product utilizing BN-Type information.
◦ The product continues to learn BN type information as knowledge through its lifetime.
◦ As a result the product is able to deal with malfunctions autonomously.
◦ Product can easily be disposed and recycled.
◦ It can be evolved in its design for the next generation manufacturing system.
◦ Hence, Bionic Manufacturing System aims at adapting to unpredictable changes in complex
manufacturing environment by implementing evolution and learning capabilities.
◦ Mainly following two issues are involved in realizing a Bionic Manufacturing System.
◦ First is to develop the embedding technology of biological information in artifacts.
◦ Second is to understand the general behavior of Bionic Manufacturing System, that is the theoretical
aspect of the concept discussion on these topics are beyond the scope of this unit.
◦ A biological system exhibits many features including autonomous and spontaneous behaviour, and social
harmony within hierarchically ordered relationships.
◦ Structurally, the cell is the basic unit which comprises all other parts of a biological system.
◦ Cells are basically similar, but differentiated by function, and are capable of multiple operations.
◦ Cells act as building blocks to make up the hierarchical layers in organisms. Thus, tissues (e.g., muscle
tissue) are formed by combine to form organs with a particular function (e.g., heart).
◦ Organs, in turn, group together to form body systems (e.g., digestive system made up of the stomach and
small intestine), and the systems make up the complex organisms.
◦ The stability of the internal chemical environment of a living organism is maintained by means of
regulating the rate of its metabolic reactions.
◦ Within a cell this is done by the enzymes that are produced by the cells.
◦ These enzymes act as catalysts to speed up or inhibit reactions.
◦ A second level regulation is done through hormones that are secreted by cells and transported in body
fluids to other parts where they exert a specific physiological action.
◦ An example of this action is colour change in some animals in response to danger.
◦ Since hormonal regulation can be slow, a central nervous system exists to deal with situations requiring
rapid reactions to changes in the external environment.
◦ The above properties of biological systems have many similarities to the operation of manufacturing
units as shown in Figure 1.
◦ The units obtain the needed inputs from the factory floor environment and perform operations.
◦ Outputs of these operations flow back to the environment.
◦ Like enzymes, coordinators may act to preserve the harmony.
◦ Also, regulatory schemes similar to hormones may include policies or strategies that have a longer term
effect on the environment, for example changes to shop-floor practices.
◦ Even centralised control may be applicable to urgently react to certain contingencies.
◦ In addition, the manufacturing units can act similar to cells as building blocks to derive hierarchical
control structures, such as shops, factories and business units.
◦ In such structures, each layer in the hierarchy supports and is supported by the adjacent layers.
◦ When specification is given at the top-layer, it passes down layer-by-layer to the bottom and finally as
tasks.
◦ In a bottom-up process, the units’ actions cumulate and manifest in an operation of the whole system.
◦ BMS uses these parallels in manufacturing to put forward modelling concepts and applications.