Electronic Systems Engineering

Module 2: Circuits from the Window of Mathematics

Topics
Brief Introduction to Laplace Transform

 Transient Analysis with Laplace Transforms

 From the last lecture…..

The mathematical operator p is based on a mathematical transform called Laplace Transform

 Laplace transform is an integral transform
The Laplace transform is expressed as,

s= + j , the output is complex in form.

Laplace (1749-1821)

e-st= e-te-jt =e-t(cost - jsint)

The inverse Laplace transform is given by:

Complex plane
where the function F(s) is defined
 Laplace transform: Applications s=+j , the output is complex in form.

• Two key applications:

- Simplifies solution of differential equations through development of an algebraic equation

- It can be used to define relationship between input and output of a system

X(s)
F(s)

System Y=F(s) X(s)

V(s)

Inductor () I=V(s)()

V(t)=L() It offers a simpler way of handling differentiation and

i(t)= integration!
Physical Intuition on Laplace Transform (Not for Evaluation)
Laplace transform is an integral transform
Velocity v leads to a change in position,

Physical system are complex, a change in velocity can lead to

sinusoidal excitations in a system

This is an instance of Laplace transform!!

X(s), incorporates frequency domain characteristics of the system

It shows how a system’s response would evolve with time, if sinusoidal oscillations are taken into
account!
 The output is product of LT of input and
response of a system

R(s)
x(s)
Filter Y(s)=x(s)R(s)
Frequency domain representation

When the input is a Delta function, the output is called Green’s function

Most of mathematical modelling is centered around Green’s function or

Response function 6
Dirac Delta Function
=, t=0
=0, t 0
• Dirac-Delta function

• Physically represents a phenomenon which lasts for a small time with a huge value
-e.g. firing a shot, hitting someone hard, a loud clap

• Kronecker Delta function or unity Delta function

=1, t=0
=0, t 0

=1

7
Laplace transforms of simple time functions

• The Unit-Step Function

• Step function acts like a switch

3-d illustration of Laplace transform of unit step function

Compute the Laplace transform of the function .

Solution:

Simplifying, we find
• Laplace transform of

The Laplace transform of the sine function is:

• The exponential function

∞
1 𝟏
ℒ [𝒆 𝑢 ( 𝑡 ) ] =∫ 𝒆
− 𝜶𝒕 −𝜶𝒕 − 𝑠𝑡 − ( 𝑠+𝑎 ) 𝑡 ∞
𝑒 𝑑𝑡 =− 𝑒 ¿0 =
0
− 𝑠 +𝑎 𝒔+ 𝒂
The real part of s shows attenuation of a signal, its imaginary part
represents frequency, Here, =1, ==-0.7225

(Not for Evaluation)

The real part of s shows attenuation of a signal, its imaginary part
represents frequency, Here, =1, ==.93

(Not for Evaluation)

Laplace Transform of exponentially decaying sinusoidal function \
(Not for Evaluation)
Laplace Transform of exponentially decaying sinusoidal function

(Not for Evaluation)

Laplace Transform of exponentially decaying sinusoidal function

(Not for Evaluation)

 Towards Fourier Transforms

The concept of Laplace transform can be extended to the Fourier Transform by substituting, s=

Fourier Transforms shows the sinusoidal components that are

present in a signal and their intensities

A picture is actually a Fourier representation, here red and green

represent the frequencies whose amplitudes are spatially
distributed
Fourier Transforms of cosine function is delta
function
 Fourier Transforms
of a square pulse
 Fourier Transforms
of exponentially decaying sine function
Simple Harmonic Oscillator

21
exponentially decaying sine function (3-d illustration)

(Not for Evaluation)

Fourier representation of exponentially decaying sine
function (3-d illustration)
(Not for Evaluation)
 Graph of eix=cos x+isin x x is dimensionless, e.g. x=t

Graph of cos x Graph of sin x Graph of eix

i is iota
graph of eix on complex plane Polar representation
est= e(.1+i)t = e(.1)t e it = e(.1)t (cos t+isin t)
i is iota
Properties of Laplace Transforms
Linearity: If and are, respectively, the Laplace transforms of and then

where a and b are constants.

Example:

+b
Properties of Laplace Transforms

Scaling: If is the Laplace transform of , then

Where is a constant and

If we let then
Example:
Properties of Laplace Transforms

Scaling: If is the Laplace transform of , then

Where is a constant and

Example:
 Properties of Laplace Transform (Most important***)
• Time Differentiation

=-f(0) =-f(0)

This emphasizes that any point mass located at 0 is entirely captured by the Laplace
transform.
Properties of Laplace Transform (Most important***)
• Time Differentiation

• Time Integration
 Find the Laplace transform of:

Find the inverse Laplace transform of:

𝑓 (𝑡 )= ℒ
−1
[ 120
𝑠
−
72
+
48
𝑠+8 𝑠 +6 ]
Find the inverse Laplace Transform of:

Simplifying,
.

By the linearity theorem,

 Circuit Analysis using Laplace Transform

Step 3: Take the inverse

Step 1: Transform the
Laplace transform of the
circuit from the time
solution and thus obtain the
domain to the s
solution in the time domain.
domain.

Step 2: Solve the circuit using nodal

analysis, mesh analysis, source
transformation, superposition, or any circuit
analysis technique.
Representation of circuits in s-domain
• For a resistor:
-relation in the time domain is,

Using the Laplace transform:

Or,
Representation of circuits in s-domain
• For an inductor:

Using Laplace transform:

or ,
For nodal analysis

For mesh analysis

Representation of circuits in s-domain
• For a capacitor:
relation in the time domain

By operational Laplace transform:

Or

For nodal
analysis

For mesh analysis

 Representation of elements in s-domain
• The impedance in the s-domain is the ratio of the voltage transform to the current transform under
zero initial conditions, that is,

Thus, the impedances of the three circuit elements are:

• The admittance in the s domain is the reciprocal of the impedance,

Step Response of Series R-L Circuit

• Let the switch S be closed at time

• The input excitation is

Applying Kirchoff’s Voltage Law to the circuit, we get

the differential equation

Taking Laplace transform, the equation becomes,

 Because of the presence of inductance L,
Thus,

Hence,

Taking inverse Laplace transform,

Impulse Response of Series R-L Circuit

 The input excitation is

The differential equation becomes

Since

Taking inverse Laplace Transform,

Impulse Response of Series R-C Circuit

The input excitation is

The differential equation becomes,

Taking Laplace Transform of the equation,

is the charge on the capacitor C at time If the capacitor is initially
uncharged, then
Therefore,

Hence,

Therefore,
 Another Example
Given the series RL circuit shown in Fig., calculate the
current through the 4 resistor. (Assume i(0)=5 A)
Using KVL to write the single-loop equation it the time
domain,

Taking Laplace transform of each term, so that

Solve for

Taking inverse Laplace Transform,

 Determine for t > 0 in the series RC circuit shown in Fig.

Write the single-loop equation,

In order to apply the time integration theorem, arrange for lower limit
of integration to be

Therefore,
Taking Laplace Transform of both sides

Solving for

Taking inverse Laplace Transform,

 Solving a differential equation: Laplace Transform
force
External force
on spring

Acceleration m(t)

damping
Laplace Transform gives us,

Inverse Laplace transform,

47
Solving a differential equation: Laplace Transform

48
Lecture 5 (DS)
 Phasor diagrams

 Phase relationships between R, L and C

 The Role of Fourier Representation

Mathematical representation of a sine wave

• Consider the sinusoidal voltage expressed as follows:

Here is the amplitude of the signal and is the angular frequency in radians/sec.
• The waveform is periodic, i.e., the signal repeats itself after every time period T (seconds).

We are finding amplitude of

We are finding amplitude of
voltage signal w.r.t time
voltage signal w.r.t angle It can be observed that
Therefore, can be
expressed as,

The figures represent the sinusoid as a function of t and t.

 Phase Difference
• A more general expression for the sinusoid is given by:

where, is the phase and is expressed in degrees or radians.

• To introduce the idea of phase, consider two sinusoids expressed as
and

• It can be observed that sinusoid occurs

first in time.
• therefore lead by .
• If ≠0, then and are said to be out of
phase.
• If 0, then and are said to be in phase, they
reach their maxima and minima in the
same time.
Why is phase important?

Signal strength is defined by phase

 Phase and three dimensional image

A picture is actually a Fourier representation, here red and green

represent the frequencies whose amplitudes are spatially
distributed, phase information is absent

3-d images have phase information

 Phasor diagram
• The phasor diagram is used to determine the phase relationships
between two or more sine waves propagating with the same
frequency.
• The instantaneous value of a quantity that varies sinusoidally with
time is represented by the projection onto a horizontal axis of a
vector with a length equal to the amplitude of the quantity as
shown in the figure.
• The vector rotates counterclockwise with constant angular speed.
These rotating vectors are called phasors and diagrams containing
them are called phasor diagrams.

54
Current and Voltage on a Phasor Diagrams

• A graphical representation of phasor is known as the phasor diagram.

Phasors of

and
 Why need phase diagram?
• Phase displaced waves form beats

• The voltages in resistors and inductors have different phases, they

do not interfere

• A complex plane representation is helpful, where they are

orthogonal to each other

56
 Phasor algebra

• Voltage can be represented as a sum of real and

imaginary number
V=

Here is the component of V along x-axis and is the

component of V along y-axis and j is an operator which when
multiplied to a phasor rotates the phasor 90° anticlockwise and
j= or = - 1
• Addition and subtraction of phasors is very simple in cartesian
coordinates as each phasor is to be decomposed into two
components, one along x-axis and the other along y-axis
and algebraic addition or subtraction can be carried out with ease.

57
Phasors
• Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors, which are more convenient to work with, than
sine and cosine functions.

• A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.

• A complex number can be expressed in rectangular form as:

Here, is the real part of is the imaginary part of and

• The complex number z can also be represented in polar coordinates or exponential form as,

where r is the magnitude of and is the phase of .

Find the amplitude, phase, period and frequency of the sinusoid

Solution: 𝒗 ( 𝒕 )=𝑽 𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝝎 𝒕 + 𝜽)

The amplitude of the sinusoid is
The phase is
The angular frequency is
The period
The frequency is given by,
 Two sinusoidal waves whose phases are to be compared must:
1. Both be written as sine waves, or both as cosine waves.
2. Both be written with positive amplitudes.
3. Each have the same frequency.

 The sine and cosine are essentially the same function, but with a 90° phase difference.

sin ωt = cos(ωt − 90◦)

 Multiples of 360° may be added to or subtracted from the argument of any sinusoidal function
without changing the value of the function.
and

Leads
by )
)
 To get the phasor corresponding to a sinusoid, we first express the sinusoid
in the cosine form.

This ensures that the sinusoid can be written as the real part of a complex
number

When the time factor, i.e., is removed, whatever is left is phasor

corresponding to the sinusoid.

By suppressing the time factor, we transform the sinusoid from the time
domain to the phasor domain.

𝑣 (𝑡 )=𝑉 𝑚 cos ( 𝜔 𝑡 + ∅ ) ⇔ 𝑉 =𝑉 𝑚 ∠ ∅
Time-domain Phasor-domain
representation representation
Given and of the rectangular form, and of the polar form can be obtained as,

Given and , and can be evaluated as,

𝒙 =𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅ , 𝒚 =𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅
Using and

𝒗 ( 𝒕 )=𝑽 𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝝎 𝒕+𝝋 ) =𝑹𝒆 ( 𝑽 𝒎 𝒆 )=𝑹𝒆 (𝑽 𝒎 𝒆 )=𝑹𝒆(𝑽 𝒆

𝒋 ( 𝝎 𝒕+𝝋 ) 𝒋𝝋 𝒋𝝎𝒕 𝒋𝝎𝒕
𝒆 )
Here,
Fourier transform and phasors

• Fourier transforms offers a tool in dealing with the frequency response.

• Impedances are represented using Fourier representation by replacing s= in Laplace representation

• The expressions for the impedances of resistors, inductors, and capacitors as in phasor analysis namely,

Thus, Ohm’s Law is still valid:

where and are the Fourier transforms of the voltage and current and ) is the impedance.
Find using Fourier techniques.

Method: find by assuming are sinusoids.

So:

Using partial fractions:

Fourier or Laplace?

Voltage drop across an inductor,

Laplace Transform,
Fourier Transform,

Use Laplace when you have to find transient and steady state
response and stability, e.g. how the net current will
be when there is a surge in input current
(Study of stability of systems)

Use Fourier Transform, when you are interested in phase

Changes
(electronic circuits, signal processing)
 Resistor in AC circuit
• Consider a resistor with resistance R through which there is a sinusoidal current given as
cos
• From Ohm’s law the instantaneous potential of point a with respect to point b is
= iR= (IR)cos
• The maximum voltage the voltage amplitude, is the coefficient of the cosine function
= IR
= cos
• The current and voltage are both proportional to the cos current is in phase with the voltage

66
 Inductor in AC circuit

• Consider a pure inductor with self-inductance and zero resistance and assume that the
current cos is with the positive direction of current taken as counterclockwise around the
circuit.
• The voltage across the inductor at any instant is proportional to the rate of change of the
current.
= -I
• The phase relationship can be expressed by using (A+ -
= I+)
• The phase of the voltage relative to the current, not the reverse. Thus, if the current I in a
circuit is

The voltage of one point with respect to another is

v= Vcos(+
is the phase angle and it gives the phase of the voltage relative to the current
• The amplitude of the inductor voltage is
• The inductive reactance of the inductor is =
• The amplitude of the voltage across inductor is 67
 Capacitor in AC circuit
• Consider a capacitor with capacitance C to the source and producing
current given as
cos
• The current (i) is related to the q by = cos
After integration we get q= sin
• The charge q equals the voltage multiplied by the capacitance q=
sin
• The phase difference is calculated as using the identity cos(A-)= sinA
os()
• This corresponds to the phase angle = -90 and the maximum voltage is
=
• The capacitive reactance of the capacitor is =
• The amplitude of the voltage is =I

68
 The LRC series circuit
• The potential difference between the terminals of a resistor is in phase with the current in the resistor and that its maximum
value = IR
• The voltage across an inductor leads the current by and the voltage amplitude is
• The voltage across capacitor lags the current by and the voltage amplitude is
= 1/
• V=+j-), hence,
V= =
= I
• The impedance Z = =
= V=IZ
• The phase angle tan

69
• The repetition of signal after T seconds can be demonstrated as follows:

• Hence, has the same value at as it does at and is said to be periodic.

• A periodic signal can be defined as a function that satisfies:

, for all t and for all integers n.

Calculate the phase angle between
and

In order to compare the two sinusoid both of the them needs to be expressed in the same form, i.e., in
terms of either sine or cosine and with an amplitude of the same sign.

Here, we use cosine form with positive amplitudes to express the sinusoids as:

Or,
And
Or,

and

Comparing the above equation, we can observe that leads by 30

Transform the time-domain voltage v(t) 100 cos(400t − 30°) volts into the frequency domain.

The time-domain expression is already in the form of a cosine wave with a phase angle.
Thus, suppressing ω = 400 rad/s,
volts

Given the phasor voltage,

and the knowledge that , we can write the time-domain equivalent directly:

volts
Apply the voltage V at a frequency to a 4H inductor, and determine the phasor current and
the time-domain current.

Use the expression for the inductor,

Or

Express this current in the time domain,

 Phasor Diagrams

A simple phasor diagram showing the A phasor diagram showing the sum of
single voltage phasor and
.
Phasor Diagrams

a) A parallel RC circuit. (b) The phasor diagram for this circuit; the node voltage
V is used as a convenient reference phasor
Why Phasor Analysis?

• It gives information about the relative phase differences between various waveforms in the circuit.
• Helps to determine active component of power.
• Helps to determine reactive component of power.
• Helps to determine power factor.

Helps in circuits with sinusoidal time-varying excitation

• Sinusoidal time varying excitation means excitation given by a sinusoid.

• A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of a sine or cosine function.