Energy Utilization and Audit

Introduction and Energy Scenario

 Energy is a property of matter that can be converted into work, heat or radiation
 Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. The amount of energy in the
universe remains constant.
 When we use energy, we do not use it, in fact we transform it from one form of
energy to another.
 Energy is involved in each and every action occurring in the universe.
 Energy is one of the most important resources for the economic development of
any country.
What is energy?
 Energy, the capacity for doing work or Ability to do work or cause change
 Produces Warmth
 Produces Light
 Produces Sound
 Produces Movement
 Produces Growth etc…
Basics of Energy and its Various Forms
 Energy is the ability to do work and work is the transfer of energy from one
form to another.
 Energy comes in different forms - heat (thermal), light (radiant), mechanical,
electrical, chemical, and nuclear energy. One form of energy can be
transformed to another.

There are two types of energy:

 Stored or potential energy: Potential energy is the form which is acquired while
in the state of rest (due to its static storage).
 Working or kinetic energy: kinetic energy is the form acquired due to its state of
motion.
Potential Energy:
Stored energy or energy of position. For an example: A hammer when raised up has potential
energy (the energy of position or state). When it is falling down has kinetic energy (the energy
of motion).
So, the Potential energy (PE) is stored energy due to position or state.
 a raised hammer has PE due to gravity.
 fuel and explosives have Chemical PE.
 a coiled spring or a drawn bow also have PE due to their state.
Potential Energy (PE) : m*g*h
 Where,
 PE is the potential energy of the object in Joules (J), m is the mass of the object in kg, g is
the acceleration due to gravity in ms-2, h is the height of the object with respect to the
reference point in m.
Chemical Energy
 Chemical energy is the energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules.
Examples: biomass, petroleum, natural gas, propane and coal.
Nuclear Energy
 Nuclear energy is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom - the energy that
holds the nucleus together.
Example: The nucleus of a uranium atom.
Stored Mechanical Energy
 Stored mechanical energy is energy stored in objects by the application of a
force.
Examples: Compressed springs and stretched rubber bands.
Gravitational Energy
 Gravitational energy is the energy of place or position.
Example: Water in a reservoir behind a hydropower dam. When the water is
released to spin the turbines, it becomes motion energy.
Example 1: A ball of mass 0.8 kg is dragged in the upward direction on an inclined
plane. Calculate the total potential energy gained by this ball given that the height of
the wedge is 0.2 meter.

Solution:
 It is given that mass of the object m = 0.8 kg. Since the potential energy of the
object is only dependent on its height from the reference position, we can say that,
PE = m.g.h
Where,
m = 0.8 kg
g = 10 m/s2,
h = 0.2 m.
So, PE = 0.8 × 10 × 0.2
PE = 1.6 J
Example 2: A wagon loaded with iron blocks is pushed up an inclined plane to its

highest point. The total mass of the wagon is 50 kg and the height of the topmost

point from the ground is 5 meters. What is the total potential energy of the wagon

at the top?

Solution:

Given: m = 50 kg, g = 10 m/s2, h=5m

Substituting the above values in the formula, PE = m.g.h , we get,

So, PE = 50×10×5 (kg* m/s2 *m )

PE = 250 J
Kinetic Energy:
It refers to a form of energy which an object or particle has due to the motion, i.e., Kinetic
energy is energy in motion- the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules and
substances.
Kinetic energy (Ek) = 1/2 mv2
Here, m = mass of the body, v = velocity of the body

Example 1: The mass of a bicycle is 10 kg, and it moves at a constant velocity of 15 m/s. Find
out the kinetic energy of this bicycle?
Here the mass is “m’ and the velocity is “v”.
Also, m = 10 kg and v = 5 m/s. Now, one must apply the kinetic energy equation:
Ek = 1/2 mv2
Ek = 1/2 (10 kg) (5 m/s)
Ek = 125 Joules
Hence, the kinetic energy, in this case, is 125 Joules.
Kinetic Energy also exists in various forms:
Radiant Energy
 Radiant energy is the electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Radiant
energy includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays and radio waves.
Example: Solar energy.
Thermal Energy
 Thermal energy (or heat) is the internal energy in substances- the vibration and
movement of atoms and molecules within substances.
Example: Geothermal energy.
Motion
 The movement of objects or substances from one place to another is motion.
Examples: Wind and hydropower.
Electrical Energy
 Electrical energy is the movement of electrons.
Examples: Lightning and electricity.
Energy Conversion:
 Energy is defined as the “ability to do work.”
Examples of work include; moving something, lifting something, warming something, or lighting
something. A few examples of energy conversion/transformation are as follows;
 Oil burns to generate heat
 heat required to boil water
 water turns to steam
 steam pressure turns a turbine
 turbine turns an electric generator
 generator produces electricity
 electricity powers light bulbs
 light bulbs give off light and heat
It is difficult to imagine spending an entire day without using energy. Energy is used to light homes and
cities, to power machinery in factories, cook food, play music and operate television and other electrical
appliances.
Grades of Energy
1. High-Grade Energy
 Electrical and chemical energy are considered to be high-grade energy because
the energy is concentrated in a small space.

 Even a small amount of electrical and chemical energy can do a great amount of
work.

 The molecules or particles that store these forms of energy are highly ordered
and compact and thus classified as high grade energy.

 High-grade energy such as, electricity is better used for high grade applications,
like melting of metals, rather than simply heating of water.
Low-grade Energy
 Heat is considered to be low-grade energy.
 Heat can still be used to do work (example of a heater boiling water), but it
rapidly dissipates.
 The molecules, in which this kind of energy is stored (air and water
molecules), are more randomly distributed than the molecules of carbon in a
coal.
 This disordered state of the molecules and the dissipated energy are classified
as low-grade energy.
Energy Units and Conversions
Energy = J = work done = Force* Displacement
1J = Nm
N = mass * Acceleration = kg*m/s2
So, 1 J = Nm = kg.m2.s-2

1 Watt = 1 Joule per second (1W = 1 J/s) which means that 1 kW = 1000 J/s.

A Watt is the amount of energy (in Joules) that an electrical device (such as a light) is
burning per second that it's running.

So a 60W bulb is burning 60 Joules of energy every second you have it turned on.
Classification of Energy Sources

Energy is classified into the following types:

 Primary and secondary energy

 Commercial and non-commercial energy
 Renewable and non-renewable
Primary Energy
 Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature, which
can be used directly.
 Example coal, oil, natural gas, biomass, nuclear energy (from radioactive
substances), thermal energy stored in the earth’s interior and exterior.
Secondary Energy
 Secondary energy sources are those that are produced from primary energy for
use.
 Example - electricity obtained from water, electricity obtained from coal and
petroleum, steam energy used from water and chemicals (fuels).
Commercial Energy
 The energy sources available in the market for a definite price are known to be the sources
of commercial energy.
 The various forms of commercial energy include electricity, coal and refined petroleum
products.
 Commercial energy forms the basis for industrial, agricultural, transport and commercial
development in the modern world.
 In the industrialised countries, commercialised fuels are not only significant for economic
production, but also for many household tasks.
Non-commercial Energy
 Non-commercial energy is classified as the energy sources that are not available in the
commercial market for any price.
 Non-commercial energy sources include fuels (such as firewood, cattle dung and agricultural
wastes), which are traditionally gathered and are used in rural households and traditional
fuels (specifically).
 However, non-commercial energy is often ignored in energy accounting.
Example - Firewood, agro wastes in rural areas.
 Renewable and Non-renewable

What are renewable and non-

renewable energy resources?

What are some examples of renewable

and non- renewable energy resources?

Which renewable energy resources do

we use in the Ethiopia?
Renewable Energy
 Renewable energy is obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible.
 Examples - wind power, solar power, geothermal energy, tidal power and
hydroelectric power.
 The most important feature of renewable energy is it does not release any
harmful pollutants when harnessed.
Non-renewable Energy
 Non-renewable energy resources are the conventional fossil fuels which are
likely to deplete with time.
 Examples include - coal, oil and gas, nuclear and natural gas.
 Solar

Biofuel
Geothermal
Renewable

Wind
Hydroelectric
 Renewable Energy and Non-renewable Energy

Energy
Renewable resources
(non-conventional)
energy resources
Hydro power
Biomass Energy
Wind Energy
Solar Energy
Geothermal Energy
Non- renewable (conventional)
energy resources
Nuclear Fuel
Fossil Fuel
Biomass Energy
• It includes all energy materials derived from
biological sources, including;

wood wastes Agricultural residues

Municipal solid waste Herbaceous/ energy crops

Biomass Energy

Biomass is the 4th source of energy in

the world after oil, coal and gas.

It contributes 10.6% of the total global

energy supply.
In the 3rd world, it provides 40% of the fuel
requirements
  Hydroelectric power harnesses the kinetic energy of running water.
Hydroelectric dam
 Hydropower facilities use water from a river,
stream, canal, or reservoir to produce
electrical energy Reservoir of
water
 Water flows downwards with gravity to spin
a turbine.
 More reliable than solar and wind power. Generator
 Hydroelectric dams are very expensive and Turbine
can harm wildlife.
  It provides about 20% of the world’s electricity
Hydroelectric dam

 In the ”developing world” the proportion

Reservoir of
rises up to 40%. water

 In Ethiopia the proportion is more than 90%

of the electricity produced Generator
Turbine
• Geothermal energy = heat energy
from the Earth
• It is originated from the earth's
molten interior and the decay of
radioactive materials in the crust.
• Geothermal energy can be directly
used in;
Industrial processes Leisure applications

Domestic & space heating Electricity production

 Sun's radiation is converted to generate
energy for industrial processes, buildings,
and transportation as well as electricity for
general consumption.
 Thermal solar panels are used to generate
heat energy,
 Photovoltaic (PV) cells made from silicon
turn sunlight directly into electricity
• Wind technologies convert moving
air energy to mechanical energy or
to electric power in a generator.

• The amount of power, and

therefore electricity, a wind turbine
can produce is largely based on
wind velocity
 Non-renewable Energy

 Non-renewable energy resources are the conventional

fossil fuels which are likely to deplete with time.
 Examples include - coal, oil and gas, nuclear and natural
gas.
Non- renewable energy resources
Nuclear Fuel
Fossil Fuel
Coal
Oil
N. Gas
 External action is required to initiate the supply of energy for practical
purposes.
 Non-renewable energy supplies are also called finite supplies.
• UK has 9,220 wind turbines (Oct
2018) with a capacity for 20.1
gigawatts – 6th largest producer of
wind power in the world

• In 2017 17% of UK electricity was

generated from wind power (29% by
renewables in total)

© 2014 Syon Geographical Ltd. 

• UK has 9,220 wind turbines (Oct
2018) with a capacity for 20.1
gigawatts – 6th largest producer of
wind power in the world

• In 2017 17% of UK electricity was

generated from wind power (29% by
renewables in total)

© 2014 Syon Geographical Ltd. 

What are renewable energy resources?

What are some examples of renewable

energy resources?

Which renewable energy resources do

we use in the Ethiopia?
Why do we need renewable energy
resources?

Why can’t we just continue to use

non-renewable resources?
 • CO2 is at 407ppm (Oct 2018)
increased by 90ppm in the last 70
years
• Global warming ~1.1°C in the past
200 years
• Ocean acidification
• Rising sea level ~3.2mm each year
• Decreasing ice sheet mass
• Retreating glaciers
• Decreasing Arctic ice at a rate of
13% each decade

Renewable energy is crucial for mitigating climate change

Renewable vs. Renewable Non-renewable
Non- • Constantly replenished
• Draws on finite sources
which will eventually run
Renewable • Does not have significant
pollutant emissions
VS.
out
• Pollutants are of concern
Energy • Renewables cost money so
you must weigh benefits.
(greenhouse gases).
• Fossil Fuels such as coal, oil,
• Solar
natural gas

Basic Renewable Energy

Current scenarios of Energy:
Linear economy vs. Circular economy

Linear economy Circular economy

The different scenarios is primarily determined by the prevailing political trend:
Modern Jazz follows a market-driven approach. The world is highly productive, with fast
economic growth and strong technological development. Digitally enabled technology
innovation and new business models address sustainability.

Unfinished Symphony follows a government-driven approach to achieving sustainability through

international cooperation. An extensive network of fiscal incentives such as green subsidies and
converging and effective carbon pricing across the different parts of the world is assumed.

Hard Rock, national interests prevent countries from collaborating effectively on a global level,
with limited attention to addressing climate change. Technologies are mandated based on the
availability of local resources.
Basics of Energy and its Various Forms
 Energy is the ability to do work and work is the transfer of energy from one
form to another.
 Energy comes in different forms - heat (thermal), light (radiant), mechanical,
electrical, chemical, and nuclear energy. One form of energy can be
transformed to another.

There are two types of energy:

 Stored or potential energy: Potential energy is the form which is acquired while
in the state of rest (due to its static storage).
 Working or kinetic energy: kinetic energy is the form acquired due to its state of
motion.
Potential Energy:
Stored energy or energy of position. For an example: A hammer when raised up has potential
energy (the energy of position or state). When it is falling down has kinetic energy (the energy
of motion).
So, the Potential energy (PE) is stored energy due to position or state.
 a raised hammer has PE due to gravity.
 fuel and explosives have Chemical PE.
 a coiled spring or a drawn bow also have PE due to their state.
Potential Energy (PE) : m*g*h
 Where,
 PE is the potential energy of the object in Joules (J), m is the mass of the object in kg, g is
the acceleration due to gravity in ms-2, h is the height of the object with respect to the
reference point in m.
Chemical Energy
 Chemical energy is the energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules.
Examples: biomass, petroleum, natural gas, propane and coal.
Nuclear Energy
 Nuclear energy is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom - the energy that
holds the nucleus together.
Example: The nucleus of a uranium atom.
Stored Mechanical Energy
 Stored mechanical energy is energy stored in objects by the application of a
force.
Examples: Compressed springs and stretched rubber bands.
Gravitational Energy
 Gravitational energy is the energy of place or position.
Example: Water in a reservoir behind a hydropower dam. When the water is
released to spin the turbines, it becomes motion energy.
Example 1: A ball of mass 0.8 kg is dragged in the upward direction on an inclined
plane. Calculate the total potential energy gained by this ball given that the height of
the wedge is 0.2 meter.

Solution:
 It is given that mass of the object m = 0.8 kg. Since the potential energy of the
object is only dependent on its height from the reference position, we can say that,
PE = m.g.h
Where,
m = 0.8 kg
g = 10 m/s2,
h = 0.2 m.
So, PE = 0.8 × 10 × 0.2
PE = 1.6 J
Example 2: A wagon loaded with iron blocks is pushed up an inclined plane to its

highest point. The total mass of the wagon is 50 kg and the height of the topmost

point from the ground is 5 meters. What is the total potential energy of the wagon

at the top?

Solution:

Given: m = 50 kg, g = 10 m/s2, h=5m

Substituting the above values in the formula, PE = m.g.h , we get,

So, PE = 50×10×5 (kg* m/s2 *m )

PE = 250 J
Kinetic Energy:
It refers to a form of energy which an object or particle has due to the motion, i.e., Kinetic
energy is energy in motion- the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules and
substances.
Kinetic energy (Ek) = 1/2 mv2
Here, m = mass of the body, v = velocity of the body

Example 1: The mass of a bicycle is 10 kg, and it moves at a constant velocity of 15 m/s. Find
out the kinetic energy of this bicycle?
Here the mass is “m’ and the velocity is “v”.
Also, m = 10 kg and v = 5 m/s. Now, one must apply the kinetic energy equation:
Ek = 1/2 mv2
Ek = 1/2 (10 kg) (5 m/s)
Ek = 125 Joules
Hence, the kinetic energy, in this case, is 125 Joules.
Kinetic Energy also exists in various forms:
Radiant Energy
 Radiant energy is the electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Radiant energy includes
visible light, x-rays, gamma rays and radio waves.
Example: Solar energy.
Thermal Energy
 Thermal energy (or heat) is the internal energy in substances- the vibration and movement of atoms
and molecules within substances.
Example: Geothermal energy.
Motion
 The movement of objects or substances from one place to another is motion.
Examples: Wind and hydropower.
Sound
 Sound is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal (compression/rarefaction) waves.
Electrical Energy
 Electrical energy is the movement of electrons.
Examples: Lightning and electricity.
Energy Conversion:
 Energy is defined as the “ability to do work.”
Examples of work include; moving something, lifting something, warming something, or lighting
something. A few examples of energy conversion/transformation are as follows;
 Oil burns to generate heat
 heat required to boil water
 water turns to steam
 steam pressure turns a turbine
 turbine turns an electric generator
 generator produces electricity
 electricity powers light bulbs
 light bulbs give off light and heat
It is difficult to imagine spending an entire day without using energy. Energy is used to light homes and
cities, to power machinery in factories, cook food, play music and operate television and other electrical
appliances.
Grades of Energy
1. High-Grade Energy
 Electrical and chemical energy are considered to be high-grade energy because
the energy is concentrated in a small space.

 Even a small amount of electrical and chemical energy can do a great amount of
work.

 The molecules or particles that store these forms of energy are highly ordered
and compact and thus classified as high grade energy.

 High-grade energy such as, electricity is better used for high grade applications,
like melting of metals, rather than simply heating of water.
Low-grade Energy
 Heat is considered to be low-grade energy.
 Heat can still be used to do work (example of a heater boiling water), but it
rapidly dissipates.
 The molecules, in which this kind of energy is stored (air and water
molecules), are more randomly distributed than the molecules of carbon in a
coal.
 This disordered state of the molecules and the dissipated energy are classified
as low-grade energy.
Energy Units and Conversions
Energy = J = work done = Force* Displacement
1J = Nm
N = mass * Acceleration = kg*m/s2
So, 1 J = Nm = kg.m2.s-2

1 Watt = 1 Joule per second (1W = 1 J/s) which means that 1 kW = 1000 J/s.

A Watt is the amount of energy (in Joules) that an electrical device (such as a light) is
burning per second that it's running.

So a 60W bulb is burning 60 Joules of energy every second you have it turned on.
 Power = Current x Voltage (P = I V)
1 Watt is the power from a current of 1 Ampere flowing through 1 Volt.
 Voltage is a measure of the pressure that allows electrons to flow, while
amperage is a measure of the volume of electrons.
1 kilowatt is a thousand Watts.
1 kilowatt-hour is the energy of one kilowatt power flowing for one hour. (E = P
t).
1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 3.6 x 106  J = 3.6 million Joules
 1 calorie of heat is the amount needed to raise 1 gram of water 1 degree Centigrade.
1 calorie (cal) = 4.184 J (The Calories in food ratings are actually kilocalories).
***********
A BTU (British Thermal Unit) is the amount of heat necessary to raise one pound of
water (0.453kg) by 1 degree Farenheit (F).
1 British Thermal Unit (BTU) = 1055 J
1 BTU = 252 cal  = 1.055 kJ
1 Quad = 1015 BTU 
1 therm = 100,000 BTU
1,000 kWh = 3.41 million BTU
Gas Volume to Energy Conversion
 One thousand cubic feet of gas (Mcf) -> 1.027 million BTU = 1.083 billion J = 301 kWh
One therm = 100,000 BTU = 105.5 MJ = 29.3 kWh
1 Mcf -> 10.27 therms

*************
Energy Content of Fuels
 Coal                       =  25  million BTU/ton
Crude Oil              =   5.6 million BTU/barrel
Oil                          = 5.78 million BTU/barrel = 1700 kWh / barrel
Gasoline                =  5.6 million BTU/barrel (a barrel is 42 gallons) = 1.33 therms / gallon
Natural gas liquids    = 4.2 million BTU/barrel
Natural gas                      = 1030 BTU/cubic foot
Wood                       = 20 million BTU/cord
CONVENTIONAL AND NON CONVENTIONAL RESOURCES

 Introduction
 Conventional energy sources
● Commercial energy sources
● Non-commercial energy sources
 Non-conventional energy sources
Introduction
 Energy broadly means the capacity of something, a person, an animal or a
physical system to do work and produce change. It is an important input for the
development of any country.
 It aims to the natural resources, energy resources are also renewable as well as
non renewable.

Renewable energy resources: Energy sources that are easily replaced after being
consumed.

Non-renewable energy resources: Energy sources that are not replaced or

replenished after being used. (May take several years to replace).
CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES

 Energy that has been used from ancient times (natural resources) is known as
conventional energy.
 A conventional resources are the ones that are commonly used. ( like pen or a pencil ).

 Coal, natural gas, oil, and firewood are examples of conventional energy sources.

 These are available in limited amount and develop over a longer period. As a result of
unlimited use, they are likely to be exhausted one day.
 In general, They form from decaying plant and animal material over hundreds of
thousands to millions of years. Most of these sources are burned to produce energy
through power plants and automobiles.
Conventional energy sources are classified in to two types
1) Commercial energy sources 2) Non-commercial energy sources

Commercial Energy

 The energy sources available in the market for a definite price are known to be the sources of

commercial energy.

 The various forms of commercial energy include electricity, coal and refined petroleum products.

Non-commercial Energy

 Non-commercial energy is classified as the energy sources that are not available in the commercial

market for any price.

 Non-commercial energy sources include fuels (such as firewood, cattle dung and agricultural wastes),

which are traditionally gathered and are used in rural households and traditional fuels (specifically).
EFFECTS
 Being carbon-based, natural gas, oil and coal store carbon as potential energy and
release it when burned.
 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change states that carbon and other
greenhouse gas emissions are a major culprit in climate change.
DISADVANTAGES
 According to the Energy Information Administration, burning coal produces
sulfur, nitrogen oxide and mercury emissions. All of these are known to have
disastrous environmental and health consequences.
 Coal

What is Coal?
 Organic sedimentary rock formed from plant remains
deposited in swamps and marshes.
 Coal is a sedimentary rock with a high amount of
carbon and hydrocarbons.
 The major use of coal is generating electric power.
 Coal is classified as a non-renewable energy source
because it takes millions of years to form.
 Burning coal is one of the largest sources of CO2, a
greenhouse gas related to global warming.
 Coal Formation

• Coalification: Coal is formed by dead plants being put under significant pressure and
temperature for million of years.
• Dead plants are buried under sediment, and converted into coal.
• Layers of dirt and rock covered the plants over millions of years. The resulting
pressure and heat turned the plants into the substance we call coal.
 Coalification

 Water is expelled as peat is compacted.

 Plant material breaks down releasing natural gas (mostly methane).
 Types (or Ranks) of Coal
Low Rank
 Peat
Increasing  Lignite
pressure,  Sub-bituminous coal
temperature and
 Bituminous coal
depth of burial
 Anthracite coal
High Rank

The ranking depends on the types and amounts of carbon the coal contains
and on the amount of heat energy the coal can produce.
The rank of a coal deposit is determined by the amount of pressure and heat
that acted on the plants over time.
 Peat: The sediment that forms coal

 Brown, partially decayed plant

fragments.
 Vegetation accumulates in wetlands
(swamps, marshes, peat bogs or
lakes).
 Stagnant water (little or no oxygen)
Pamela Gore
slows decomposition rate.
 Lignite
 Lignite, often referred to as brown coal, is a soft, brown, combustible,
sedimentary rock formed from naturally compressed peat.
 Plant parts may be visible.

 Formed from compaction of peat under low burial pressures &

temperatures.
 It is considered the lowest rank of coal due to its relatively low heat content.

 It is mined all around the world and is used almost exclusively as a fuel for
steam-electric power generation. Lignite is the most harmful coal to human
health.
 Carbon content (%): 60 – 70
 Ash content (%): 6 – 19
 Heat content (MJ/kg): 10 – 20
 Coloration: Brownish-black
 Sub-bituminous coal

 Sub-bituminous coal is a type of lower grade coal

which contains 35-45% carbon.
 Intermediate between lignite and bituminous coal.
 Sub-bituminous coal is primarily used as a fuel for
steam-electric power generation.
 Heat content (MJ/kg): 19.3 – 26.7 or 8300 to 11,500
BTU/lb
 Coloration: Dull dark brown to black
 Bituminous coal
 Dull to shiny luster.
 May have layers.
 Deeper burial, longer burial, and higher temperatures than lower
coal ranks.
 It is of higher quality than lignite and Sub-bituminous coal, but of
poorer quality than anthracite.
 Formation is usually the result of high pressure being exerted on
lignite.
 Carbon content: 60 – 80%
 Ash content: 6 – 12%
 Heat content: 24 – 35 MJ/kg or 10,500 Btu/lb
 Coloration: Black or dark brown
 Anthracite coal
 Hard, shiny coal with a silvery luster.
 A metamorphic rock formed from bituminous coal at higher
temperatures and pressures.
 It contains 86–97% carbon and generally has the highest
heating value of all ranks of coal.
 It has the highest carbon content, the fewest impurities, and
the highest energy density of all types of coal and is the
highest ranking of coals.
 The heat content of anthracite ranges from 26 to 33 MJ/kg
(14,000 Btu/lb).
Technical characteristics of the various grades of anthracite are as follows:

Standard grade High grade Ultra High grade

anthracite anthracite anthracite
Moisture 15% 15% 13%
(maximum)
Ash (maximum) 20% 15% 12%
Volatiles 10% 10% 5%
(maximum)
Fixed carbon 73% 80% 85%
(minimum)
Sulfur 1% 1% 0.6%
(maximum)
 Carbon, Heating Value and
Carbon Dioxide

 Different types of coal contain different amounts of carbon.

 The highest percentage of carbon is found in the highest rank
coal.
 High-rank coal also has a higher heat content (or heating
value).
 When coal is burned, carbon dioxide is emitted – a greenhouse
gas related to global warming.
 Review Questions(15-20%)

1. How does coal rank relate to temperature and

pressure of burial?
2. How does carbon content relate to coal rank?
3. How does heating value relate to coal rank?
4. What is the major use of coal?
5. Discuss in detail about coal handling?
6. Write the benefits of coal beneficiation?
Analysis of Coal:
 There are two methods: ultimate analysis and proximate analysis.
 The ultimate analysis determines all coal component elements, solid or
gaseous and the proximate analysis determines only the fixed carbon, volatile
matter, moisture and ash percentages.
 Coal analyses may be presented in the form of proximate and ultimate
analyses, whose analytical conditions are prescribed by organizations such as
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
 Typical Proximate Analysis of Various Coals (in percentage):

Typical Ultimate Analysis of Various Coals:

Relationship between Ultimate analysis and Proximate analysis:
How Does the energy Gained From Coal?

1) Starts off as chemical energy

 Coal itself contains chemical energy as its potential energy lies with in the bonds
that hold the molecule together.
 During the combustion of coal, the chemical bonds of carbon and oxygen
(reactants) break apart through exothermic reactions.
 In this exothermic reaction, more energy is released to form bonds of carbon
dioxide and water than is used to break bonds of carbon and oxygen and
therefore there is a net release in energy, hence thermal energy.
2) Transfers To thermal Energy
 The combustion of carbon changes the chemical energy that is stored in
the bonds of carbon to thermal energy by breaking the bonds releasing
carbon dioxide, water and heat.
 The thermal energy or heat energy that is acquired from the
combustion of coal leads to the evaporation of water.
 Heat is added to break apart the hydrogen bonds between oxygen and
hydrogen to produce water vapor in an endothermic reaction.
3. Transfers to kinetic energy: 

 This results in steam which is pressured into pipes that travel to the turbine. The
intense pressure of the steam moves the turbines generating kinetic energy. 

4. Transfers to electric energy

 The kinetic energy of these turbines generates an electric current which is sent to
different parts of the city.
 As such, we harness the energy of coal from different processes that start with
converting chemical energy to thermal energy and finally to electrical energy which
is used by us in our daily lives. From watching T.V. to warming up our houses, coal
plays a very important role in our lives.
A typical process of energy generation from coal:
THERMAL POWER PLANT
The coal handling facility is the lifeline of a coal–
fueled power plant.

Modern power plants have high demand of coal so,

Coal handling facilities have to be
* flexible,
* reliable,
* capable of handling larger quantities.
 ASH Production ::

A 200 MW capacity power plant = produces 60,000 tons of ash

per annum.
 Handling is difficult as ash coming out of furnace is too hot,
dusty, poisonous one.
 So, ashes should be discharged & dumped at sufficient distance
from the Power-plant & locality.
 Out Plant Handling of COAL
 Transportation of coal from Coal mines -> Power plant.
 Modes of TRANSPORTATION ::
o A] Waterways….

o B] Railways….
C] Roads….

D] Ropeways….
E] Pipeline….

 Merits : # Economical, Safer, Reliable than others.

# Noise & Dust free.

 Demerits : # Costly.
# More water needed:(1kgcoal=1kgwater).
 The 9rd November 2006

COAL HANDLING
PLANT
(INSIDE PLANT)

Larsen & Toubro Limited,

ECC Division
ii) Petroleum:
 Petroleum, also called crude oil or just oil, is a naturally
occurring, yellowish-black liquid found in geological
formations beneath the Earth's surface.
 It is commonly refined into various types of fuels.
 Components of petroleum are separated using a
technique called fractional distillation, i.e. separation of a
liquid mixture into fractions differing in boiling point by
means of distillation, typically using a fractionating
column.
 It consists of naturally occurring hydrocarbons of various
molecular weights and may contain miscellaneous
organic compounds.
• Oil and natural gas
• Oil and natural gas, consisting of various hydrocarbon compounds, are produced in a similar
manner though are typically derived from different sources of organic remains.
• Derived from the remains of marine plants and animals (mostly plankton).
• Oil and natural gas result from the chemical breakdown of these remains in the absence of
oxygen, as depth of burial (and therefore temperature) increases.
• The oxygen and nitrogen in the original organics are driven off, leaving hydrocarbon compounds
(compounds of carbon and hydrogen).
 Crude Oil Formation
 The most popular theory is known as the Organic Theory.
 This theory states that oil has zoological origins.
 Small sea creatures from the days when the earth was mostly covered in water died and
settled to the bottom of the ocean floor.
 Layer upon layer of silt, sand and clay built up on top of them over time.
 Through the process of decay, as well as ever increasing heat and pressure, the former sea
creatures were converted to oil.
 Over millions of years, continuous pressure actually compressed those layers of silt and clay
into layers of rock.
 This is known as "reservoir rock".
 The temperature under the earth's surface increases the deeper you go underground.
 At about 600C, oil begins to form.
 Oil formation ceases at about 1500 C.
 Oil formed at lower temperatures (i.e. closer to the surface) is called immature and is heavy.
 Petroleum Traps
• A geologic environment that allows for
economically significant amounts of oil and gas
to accumulate underground is termed an
oil/petroleum trap

• Oil and gas is contained in a reservoir. A

reservoir must be permeable to oil and gas, and
contain sufficient interconnected pore space to
accommodate the petroleum. Common
examples are poorly lithified sandstones,
carbonate reefs, diagenetic carbonates.

• The roof of the trap must be made of material

that is impermeable to fluids. This is necessary
to prevent the upward escape of oil and gas
which are much less dense than the surrounding
rock.

• Common traps include anticline fold traps, fault-

bounded traps (structural traps) as well as
various stratigraphic traps.
 Oil traps occur in many forms

Anticline fold
trap
In all of these cases:

1. oil and gas

accumulates in a restricted
area and the top of the
Fault-bounded
permeable reservoir rock
trap
unit is sealed by an
impermeable caprock

Stratigraphic
trap
 Recovery of Oil and Gas

When the cap rock is penetrated by drilling, the

oil and natural gas, under pressure, migrate
from the pore spaces of the reservoir rock to
the drill hole.

Before methods were developed to control the

upward flow of oil in wells (e.g. blowout
preventers), dangerous gushers took place
when pressure was suddenly released from oil
traps.
Composition by weight

Element Percent range

Carbon 83 to 85%
Hydrogen 10 to 14%
Nitrogen 0.1 to 2%
Oxygen 0.05 to 1.5%
Sulfur 0.05 to 6.0%
Metals < 0.1%
Compostions of crude oil
 Basic Properties of oil

1. Light crude oil

2. Heavy crude oil
 Composition of Crude Oil

CRUDE OIL

HYDROCARBONS NON-HYDROCARBONS

ALIPHATICS AROMATICS NAPHTHENES SULFURS NITROGENS OXYGENS METALLICS

25% 17% 50% <8% <1% <3% <100PPM

C1 - C60 (C6H5)n O
CYCLOALKANES
SH

N
H COOH
S
 The Versatility of Petroleum

…But petroleum-derived organic molecules are also used in an

incredible number of other products that include:

Solvents, used in paints, lacquers, and

printing inks, and cleaners

Lubricating oils and greases for

machinery

Petroleum (or paraffin) wax used in

candy making, candles, packaging,
matches, and polishes
Petroleum jelly (Vaseline), used in
medical products and toiletries

Asphalt, used to pave roads and

airfields and to make roofing
materials and floor coverings

Plastics and synthetic rubber,

used in packaging, casings,
fabrics, bubble gum, etc.

…and many more !

Properties of Liquid Fuels:

Density: This is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the fuel
at a reference temperature of 15°C. Density is measured by an instrument called
hydrometer.

Specific gravity: This is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil to
the weight of the same volume of water at a given temperature. The density of fuel,
relative to water, is called specific gravity. The specific gravity of water is defined as 1.

Calorific Value: Gross calorific value (GCV) assumes all vapour produced during the
combustion process is fully condensed. Net calorific value (NCV) assumes the water
leaves with the combustion products without fully being condensed. Fuels should be
compared based on the net calorific value.
 Viscosity: The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow. Viscosity
depends on temperature and decreases as the temperature increases. Unit: Stokes /
Centistokes. Instrument : Viscometer.
 Flash Point: The flash point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be
heated so that the vapour gives off flashes momentarily when an open flame is passed
over it.
 Pour Point: The pour point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow
when cooled under prescribed conditions. It is a very rough indication of the lowest
temperature at which fuel oil is readily pumpable.
 Specific Heat: Specific heat is the amount of kcals needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg
of oil by 1oC. The unit of specific heat is kcal / kg 0C.
 Sulphur: The amount of sulphur in the fuel oil depends mainly on the source of the
crude oil and to a lesser extent on the refining process. The normal sulphur content
for the residual fuel oil (furnace oil) is in the order of 2-4 %.
 Ash Content: The ash value is related to the inorganic material in the fuel oil. Excessive
ash in liquid fuels can cause fouling deposits in the combustion equipment. Ash has
erosive effect on the burner tips, causes damage to the refractoriesat high
temperatures and gives rise to high temperature corrosion and fouling of equipments.
 Carbon Residue: Carbon residue indicates the tendency of oil to deposit a
carbonaceous solid residue on a hot surface, such as a burner or injection nozzle,
when its vaporisable constituents evaporate. Residual oil contains carbon residue
ranging from 1 percent or more.
 Water Content: Water content of furnace oil when supplied is normally very low as the
product at refinery site is handled hot and maximum limit of 1% is specified in the
standard. Water may be present in free or emulsified form and can cause damage to
the inside furnace surfaces during combustion especially if it contains dissolved salts.
It can also
CRUDE Petroleum delivered from well field

DESALTING Water washing to remove impurities

REFINING
Distillation to separate by boiling point ranges

REFORMING Conversion reactions to alter molecular structures

Mixing to obtain maximum commercial

BLENDING
characteristics
Typical Specification of Fuel oils:

low sulphur heavy stock (LSHS) Light diesel oil (LDO)

Natural gas:
 Natural gas (also called fossil gas), is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas
mixture consisting primarily of methane, but commonly including varying
amounts of other higher alkanes, and sometimes a small percentage of
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, or helium.
 Natural gas is a non-renewable hydrocarbon used as a source of energy for
heating, cooking, and electricity generation.
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG or LP gas), is a flammable mixture of hydrocarbon
gases used as fuel in heating appliances, cooking equipment, and vehicles.
LPG has a typical specific calorific value of 46.1 MJ/kg compared with 42.5 MJ/kg for
fuel oil and 43.5 MJ/kg for premium grade petrol (gasoline).
However, its energy density per volume unit of 26 MJ/L is lower than either that of
petrol or fuel oil, as its relative density is lower (about 0.5–0.58 kg/L, compared to
0.71–0.77 kg/L for gasoline).
Chemical Composition:
 Project
on Natural Gas

1. Formation of natural gas

2. Detail compositions of natural gas
3. Properties of natural gas
4. How to extract natural gas from the ground
5. How to process natural gas in industrial scale