Wireline logging Operations

University of Jordan
December 2015

Prof. Dr : Omar Rimawi

PhD Candidate: Ali Obeidat
Subsurface – Course
Content
 Introduction to well logging
 Gamma Ray
 Sonic
 Density
 Resistivity
 The Borehole Imaging Tool
 Quick Look at the Interpretations

2
Introduction

 In the exploration process, a most probable hydrocarbon

bearing rock structure is defined based on seismic and
geological surveys, and a drilling location is then released
and the well is drilled.

 The most practical way is to drill a well and record all the
useful information possible from a core.

 Many sub-surface data are obtained from drill coring and

cuttings, but the method is highly expensive and has many
limitations.

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 Well Logging

 Welllogging provides a cheaper, quicker method of

obtaining accurate sub-surface data.

 WellLogging is the technique of making petrophysical

measurements in the sub-surface formations through
borehole in order to determine both the physical and
chemical properties of rocks and the fluids they
contain.

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 Logging Unit
Consist of
 Logging cable
 Winch
 AC Generator
 Set of downhole
tools
 Digital recording
system

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Purpose of logging a well
 Stratigraphic correlation
 Formation Tops
 Determine thickness and depth of important rock
units:
 Isopach maps
 Structure maps
 Quantitative Oil, Gas , Water saturations
 Porosity
 Correlation with seismic data
 Sedimentological studies
 Reservoir modeling
 Structural studies
 Economics
 etc. 6
 It must be realised that data in this category are only a
part of the complete data set gathered during and
after the drilling phase of a well. The geologist should
always attempt to integrate all available information
to produce the most complete picture possible.

 Other data include:

 Drilling related data (drill cuttings, penetration rates
and drilling torques, evaluation of shows on cuttings).
 Core analysis (formation type and internal structures,
oil shows evaluation, porosity analysis, permeability
analysis).

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 Wireline data allow the analysts to determine the
depths at which formations are buried their porosity,
permeability and hydrocarbon content.

 There is no single logging tool that will allow

identification of a formation by itself. By considering
the overall effect of the changes in monitored
parameters, the geologist is able to deduce the
formation type. This is obviously enhanced by study of
the drilling parameters and drill cuttings.

 Once a reservoir has been identified, logs will then give

the geologist the tools they need to assess the
hydrocarbon potential of the formation.
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The Gamma Ray Tool

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 Gamma Ray
 Gammy Rays are high energy electromagnetic waves
which are emitted by atomic nuclei as a form or
radiation.
 Gammay ray log is measurement of natural
radioactivity information verses depth.
 It measure the radiation emitting from naturally
occuring U, Th, and K.
 GR reflect shale or clay content
 Clean formation have low radioactivity level.
 Correlation between wells
 Formation boundary

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Gamma Ray

Naturally Occurring Radioisotopes in Sedimentary Rock

Uranium
Decays through series of radioactive stages

Thorium
Decays through series of radioactive stages

Potassium
K40 + e → Ar40 + γ

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 SOURCES OF GAMMA RADIATION

 There exist several naturally occurring radioactive

isotopes that are relatively common in sedimentary
rock sequences. These are uranium, thorium, and
potassium (K40). Each decays to a more stable isotope

 ONE method is by decaying potassium (K40 )to a

stable argon isotope (Ar40) following the capture of a
free electron (beta particle) by the potassium nucleus.
This is accompanied by the release of a burst of
energy known as a gamma ray.
 K40 + e → Ar40 + γ

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 Gamma radiation occupies the highest energy portion
of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 1MeV
to 1GeV.
 By measuring the number of gamma rays striking a
detector over any given time period, it is possible to
record a value for the gamma radiation, for example
expressed as counts per second.
 if the counts are averaged over a reasonable time
interval, the indications in general terms are useful in
distinguishing between rocks rich in radio-isotopes
and those poorer in radio-isotope concentration.

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 The gamma ray measure the natural radioactivity of
the rock.
 Shale: radioactive potassium is a common
component , and because of their cation exchange
capacity, uranium and thorium are often absorbed
as well.
 Therfore often shale will display high gamma ray
responses, while sandstone and limestone will show
lower responses.
 The scale for GR is in API (Americal Petroleum
institute), and also The number of electric pulses is
recorded in counts per seconds (CPS).

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GAMMA RAY DETECTOR
 The simplest form of detector used in the logging
industry (the scintillation counter) relies on the
emission of a short-lived burst of light as the gamma
ray strikes a sodium iodide (NaI) crystal in the probe.
 This light is collected and used by the probe to generate
a shower of electrons within a photomultiplier tube.
 As the photon collides with the cathode, it causes
electrons to be released from the cathode surface
 These are attracted by a sequence of progressively
more positive anodes to produce an electric pulse
strong enough to be measured.
 Each collision between an electron and an anode
releases around four more electrons.
The processing system counts the number of such pulses
per unit time. 15
Gamma Ray

Scintillation Counter

photomultiplier tube

Cathode Anode
)ve-( )ve+(

Incident Gamma Ray

Produced Light Photon NaI Crystal

Electron Shower

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 SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY TOOL

 The nature of the source of gamma radiation is deduced

by using a spectral gamma ray tool. In this application
not only are the number of light pulses recorded but also
their associated energy.

 This is achieved by adding spectroscopic tools to the

scintillation counters.

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Gamma Ray

Spectral Gamma Ray

Counts
= 1.460 MeVK
= 1.760 MeVU
= 2.614 MeVTh
K

U
Th

1 2 MeV

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 STATISTICAL VARIATION
 Gamma-ray logs exhibit a degree of statistical variation
since the number of gamma-rays reaching the tool varies
with time due to the random emission of radioactivity.
Thus each wiggle on the gamma-ray log need not
necessarily represent a change in rock type.

 Most gamma ray photons are attenuated before reaching

the tool in the borehole, through Compton Scattering or
by absorption of low energy photons by other atoms.

 It is estimated that over 50% of the measured gamma

radiation has been emitted from the first six inches of
formation, and that maximum depth of investigation is
restricted to around one foot.
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 USING GAMMA RAY LOGS
 the gamma ray
tool, when
combined with
analysis of drill
cuttings,
becomes the
most useful
lithological
identification
tool available
during well site
operations.
 

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Formation Identification
Apart from correlation between logs, the gamma ray is primarily
used in the identification of different formations,e.g. in clastic
sequences enabling the geologist to differentiate between clays,
sands and silts.

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 Gamma Ray

Scintillation Counter measures “counts per second” (CPS)

American Petroleum Institute Gamma Ray Units
API Test Well at University of Houston

Block 1
Ottawa Sand Only

Block 2

R
Ottawa Sand plus
U, Th, & K

Block3

Ottawa Sand Only

Difference in tool response between Block 2 and other blocks is defined to be 200API

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 Recognising Reservoir Units
 Since sandstones and limestones tend to be relatively
poor in potassium-bearing minerals, the gamma ray
intensity tends to be used in the identification of shales
and clays within the stratigraphic sequence. By
inference, the reservoir rocks (usually sandstone or
limestones) will be identified to some extent from their
relative lack of gamma response
 Micaceous Sands
 Of course some sands and limestones contain
radioactive impurities, dependent on their source
materials. Thus a high gamma ray value is not
universally indicative of the presence of clays. For
example, micaceous sands will often register high
gamma ray counts

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 Evaporites
 Evaporite
deposits can display either very high or very
low gamma ray depending on their mineralogy.

 TotalOrganic Carbon (Source Rocks)

 Dark bituminous shales, e.g. the Kimmeridge Clay of
the North Sea, often contain strong traces of thorium
and uranium and are very radioactive compared with
low organic content clays.

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 Gamma Ray
Uses of Spectral Gamma Ray Logs
the spectral gamma ray tool output is quoted as individual  

thorium, uranium, and potassium components. The ratio of

each element to the others can then be used to infer the
mineralogy of the formation from which the gamma rays
were emitted.
Element Minerals & Formations
Potassium Mica, feldspar, illitic clays, evaporites
Thorium Shales, heavy minerals
Uranium Phosphates, organic material

Evaporites - no Thorium
Carbonates - no Thorium in pure chemical deposits
Thorium plus Potassium implies argillaceous content -
Uranium implies reducing conditions -
Volcanic Ash – Thorium rich
Unconformity - revealed by abrupt change in element ratios
Fractures/Stylolites
31/07/2023
- Sharp Uranium peaks 28
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 Gamma Ray
Uses of Spectral Gamma Ray Logs

Fractures/Stylolites - Sharp Uranium peaks

31/07/2023 29
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Variable Formation Density
 Note that formation density will also affect the
measured radioactivity since gamma rays are
attenuated by collisions between the gamma ray
photons and the molecules of the material forming the
rock. It follows that more collisions, and therefore
greater attenuation, will result where the rock is
denser. Formations that are in all other ways identical
will show lower gamma ray values where density is
higher.

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Facies and Environment of Deposition
 The shape of the gamma ray log trace can also be
used in the interpretation of formations, since the
grain size and clay content variations will cause
changes to occur in the log

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 Gamma is proportional to clay minerals
 Gamma decreases in sandstone and carbonates:
except
- arkoses
- phosphates
- euxinic shales

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Sonic
 Sonic logs measure the travel time of sound through
the rock, recorded in microseconds per foot or per
meter (abbreviated as usec/ft or usec/m, sometimes
us/ft or us/m), designated as Δt, (which is a measure
of a formation’s capacity to transmit seismic waves).

 (Δt) in microseconds for a compressional sound wave

to cross one foot of formation .

 Δt or acoustic travel time is related to the velocity, V

(ft/sec), of the compressional sound wave by:
 Δt = 10^6/Velocity

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 The tool emits a sound pulse about once or twice per
second from a transmitter. The first arrival of sound is
detected at two or more receivers a few feet from each
other and from the transmitter. The time elapsed
between the arrival of sound at two detectors is the
desired travel time.
 Interval containing greater pore space will result in
greater travel time and vice versa for non porous
sections.
 This capacity varies with lithology and rock textures,
most notably decreasing with an increasing
effective porosity.

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lists typical matrix velocities for some of the more
common formations encountered

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The Density Tool

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Density Log
 The density wireline tool was created (by
Schlumberger in 1967) to measure gamma ray
attenuation through formations.

 Theformation density log is a porosity log that

measures elecron density of a formation.

 Dense formation absorb many gamma ray, while low –

density formation absorb fewer. Thus , high count rate
at the detector indicate low – density formation,
whereas low count at the detctors indicate high –
density formations.

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THE DENSITY TOOL

Therfore, scattered gamma ray reaching the detector is

an indicator of formation density.

Operating Principle of Density Tools

A radioactive source in the tool (for example Cs137) emits

a beam of gamma rays while a detector (scintillation
counter) also mounted in the tool measures the intensity
of these gamma rays after passing through a section of
formation adjacent to the tool.

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 Formation Density

Sidewall Density Guard Sonde

Filter Cake
Pad Tool

Short spaced detector

allows interpretation of
filter cake effects
Compton Scattering
Long-Spaced
Reduced Detector Subtract short spaced
energy photon effects from long spaced.
Difference reveals
Incident formation effects
Short-Spaced
photon Detector
Correction factor is
γ-ray Source
transmitted with data
Released
electron
Brace holds tool against
borehole wall and provides
caliper function

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 Compton Scattering.
 In this process, a gamma ray collides with an electron
bound to a nucleus. To be effective, the gamma ray
energy must be greater than the binding energy holding
the electron to an atom. Energy is transferred to the
electron upon collision, and the electron is released from
the atom.

 As a consequence, the atom has now been ionised. The

photon’s energy is now reduced, while its path direction
through the material will have been altered by the
collision. This process of collision and energy transfer will
continue until the photon finally collides with an electron
whose binding energy exceeds that of the photon.

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 Two detectors are incorporated into the tool. The
first is situated close to the emitter to study the mud
cake effects (short spaced), while the second is
further away (long spaced) allowing the effects on the
gamma ray caused by the formation itself to be
studied.
 The density log results are plotted as gcm-3.
 The log is capable of measuring responses
corresponding to a depth of around 15cm from the
borehole wall.
 Since the density of any rock depends in part on its
porosity, this can be used by petrophysicists to
evaluate pore volume in the rock (density porosity
ΦD).

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 Formation density can be read directly from the
density log, and is plotted linearly on the log to give
better separation between data points.

 The density tool is a pad tool, and is therefore only

accurate when the pad is in contact with the borehole
wall. In badly washed out holes, readings may be
unreliable. Check with the caliper log to assess
borehole geometry.

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 Formation Density
Using Formation Density
Material Porosity Range Density Range
(%) (g/cc)
Sandstone 0 - 10% 2.65 - 2.49
Limestone 0 - 10% 2.71 - 2.54
Dolomite 0 - 10% 2.87 - 2.68
Shales/Claystone Dependent on Compaction 2.00 - 2.80
Coal 1.20 - 1.50
Halite 0 2.03

Identify Formation Tops

Calculation of Porosity
Compensation Curve

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 Formation Density
Sidewall Density Guard Sonde

.Bed Resolution depends on detector spacing

Formal calibration by measuring known formation

responses in well (e.g. anhydrite, halite, etc. if available)
Also
Laboratory response from known density synthetic beds

Correlate with Core Porosity data

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The Resistivity Tool

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RESISTIVITY LOG
 
 The terms resistance and resistivity are usually
associated with solids, while conductance and
conductivity are used to describe liquids.

 To differentiate between resistance, conductance,

resistivity and conductivity, consider the figure below.
The situation on the left represents a wire of length l
and cross-sectional area A. On the right there is a
liquid in which two electrodes have been immersed.
The electrodes have area A and are separated by
distance l.

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 Resistivity  

R  l/A
+ _
R =  l/A
+ l

l +
Na
 = RA/l
_ e A Resistance measured in Ohms ( )
Area in square metres (m2 )
A
-
Cl Length in metres (m)

Thus  m2 /m = ohm.m

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 Electric charge is carried in the wire by electrons,
while in the liquid the charge is carried by ions.

 If the liquid contains no ions at all, it is impossible for

it to conduct an electric current (for example
deionised water).

 Resistivity is therefore expressed as ohm-metres (m).

 Conductivity is expressed as siemens per metre (Sm-1).

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 Resistivity  

Laterologs (Sidewall
Density Guard Tool)

R
Uninvaded Zone

Invaded Zone

Need to compensate for signal

Filter Cake Drilling Fluid
resistivity through the invaded zone
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 Principle of Operation
 The basic principle of the tool is to emit a direct current
from a central electrode, which then passes into the
formation and flows to a detector electrode located at
the end of the tool. The attenuation of this current
indicates the resistivity of the current flow path. This is
indicated by a system that automatically alters the
potential to maintain a constant current flow. Thus the
compensating voltage increases as the resistivity
increases.
 Between the transmitting and receiving electrodes, coils
are introduced to generate currents that will oppose the
tendency of the signal current to move upwards or
downwards to the detecting electrodes. This causes the
signal current to be focused and directed through the
drilling fluid and invaded zone to reach the desired
uninvaded formation. 55
 Expected Resistivity Responses
 Formations with good effective porosity and which
contain saline formation waters will easily pass electric
current (e.g. reservoir quality sandstones with salt-
water pore fluids) and so will display low values of
formation resistivity.
 Formations with poor effective porosity will display
high formation resistivities (e.g. claystones). 
 Formations with good effective porosity but containing
non-conductive formation pore fluid (e.g. hydrocarbon)
will also display high resistivity values. 
 The resistivity tool response must always be examined
in conjunction with other lithological indicating tools
(such as gamma ray) in order to properly understand
the tool's output.

56
 Resistivity

Typical Resistivity Values in Common Rock Types

 

Good effective porosity plus saline formation pore fluids imply low resistivity
Poor effective porosity implies high resistivity

Good effective porosity plus non-conductive formation pore fluids imply high resistivity

Formation Type Resistivity Value Range

Sand 0.1 to 1000 Ωm
Shale 1 to 10 Ωm
Anhydrite 103 to 104 Ωm
Dolomite 0.1 to 100 Ωm
Limestone 1 to 100 Ωm
Rock salt 103 to 105 Ωm 57
Fluid Resistivities
Resistivity of Various Formation Fluids

Formation Fluid Type Resistivity

Fresh Water High
Marine Water Variable with salinity
Hydrocarbon Very High
Aeolian Sediments Variable depending on fluid type which
migrates into formation post-deposition

31/07/2023 58
 
The high degree of variation in sand, limestone and
dolomite reflects the differences in porosity, pore shapes,
fluid salinities, etc which may be observed within such a
variable rock type.

Chemically precipitated rocks such as anhydrite and rock

salts have no porosity as a result of their mode of
deposition, and consequently display very high resistivity
values.

A great deal of overlap occurs between the major rock

types, so resistivity on its own is insufficient to determine
the type of formation being drilled.

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The Borehole Imaging Tool

60
 Borehole Imaging

JOSCo uses the RC Hi-OPTV imaging tool (Hi-Resolution

Optical Televiewer)

61
Borehole Imaging

Since most JOSCo boreholes are normally filled with air or

water, the drilling fluid is transparent

62
Borehole Imaging

Actual photographic colour images are therefore possible

with this tool

Gravitational field sensors

(accelerometers) and
magnetic field sensors
(magnetometers) are
incorporated to enable the
orientation of the image to
be measured (horizontal
axis is 360° North to North)

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 Borehole Imaging

Changes in rock colour can be used to identify organic

carbon rich layers

64
Borehole Imaging

The image seen here is a two-dimensional “unwrapped”

version of the borehole wall. Using software the image can
be used to construct a
”virtual 3-D “core

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Borehole Imaging

Apart from visualising textural features, software also allows

analysis of formation and fracture dip and strike

Comparison with core data is

also available

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Thank

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