CIV558/CIV658

Sustainable development and climate

change–energy-environment nexus

Presented by:
Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Gökçekuş
 Content

 Section 1: Chapter 2
 Section 2: Homework 2
 Section 1:
Climate change, hydrology, and water resources
 Introduction

 Water is involved in all components of the climate system: the

atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, land surface and
biosphere.
 The dynamics of the water cycle are one of the key variables
that determine the distribution and productivity of ecosystems.
 Changes in hydrology influence plant and animal species in
various ways.
 Almost all land-dependent life, habitats and ecosystems depend
of freshwater. Similarly, water plays a key role in the climatic
system. 
 The water cycle is a key process upon which other cycles of
the climate system operate.
 It acts as an energy transfer and storage medium through the
hydrological cycle.
 Globally, changes in water vapour content of the atmosphere,
cloud cover and ice influence the radiation balance of the
earth and thus play an important role in determining the
climate response to increasing greenhouse gas emissions.
 Hence, changes in climate are intricately interlinked with
changes to the hydrological cycle – the most important
feedback cycle in the climate system.
Overview about the hydrological cycle

 The hydrological cycle describes the continuous

circulation of water between ocean, atmosphere and land.
 Water is transferred through physical processes like
evapotranspiration, precipitation, infiltration and river
runoff. This circle from one reservoir to another involves
energy exchange in terms of heat transfer, solar radiation
and gravitational potential energy.
 During these processes water can change its aggregation
state (liquid, vapour, or ice) various times.
 Cont.

 Precipitation is condensed water vapour and mostly occurs as rain,

but also includes snow, hail, drizzle, sleet and fog drip. Snow can
accumulate and eventually compact to form glaciers and ice caps.
 In case of ice and snow, the water stored is released to the cycle
with delay as a function of temperature.
 Rainfall type, volume and intensity are a decisive factor for further
processes in the catchment.
 Factors controlling evaporation are the amount of incident solar
radiation, the vapour pressure of the air relative to saturation, air
temperature, wind circulation and atmospheric pressure. 
 Cont.

 About 600 calories of energy per gram of water is exchanged

during the change from a liquid to a gaseous state.
Transpiration accounts for loss of water vapour through plant
stomata. Besides in snow and ice covers, water can be held on
the canopy surface, which includes plant foliage, branches
and stems.
 From this so called interception store, it eventually
evaporates to the atmosphere without reaching the soil
surface. If rainfall intensity exceeds the soil’s infiltration
capacity, surface runoff occurs.
 Cont.

 The respective infiltration rate depends mainly on the texture

and structure as well as the initial moisture content of the soil.
 Water infiltrated can be held in the unsaturated soil dependent
on the amount lost by plant uptake, evaporation, groundwater
recharge, or interflow.
 Interflow characterizes the downslope transfer of water through
the soil towards river channels.
 The groundwater storage is replenished slowly by deep
percolation and can be a long-term reservoir of the water cycle
(with residence time from days to millennia).
 Cont.

 Groundwater flow is the slow movement of water within the

saturated zone of an aquifer under the influence of gravity or
hydrostatic pressure.
 River runoff in streams is composed of surface runoff, interflow,
groundwater flow and direct precipitation.
 The flow process that dominates on a slope are a function of several
variables, including climate, vegetation, rainfall characteristics, soil
thickness, slope morphology, and human interferences.
 The velocity of runoff in (river) stream channels is controlled by the
gradient and shape of the channel, and its roughness caused by the
presence of bed load, i.e. stones, and vegetation.
 Water cycle

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=al-do-HGuIk
Impacts of climate change on the water
cycle

 Temperature increases, rising sea levels, and changes in the

amount and frequency of local precipitation are the main
reasons climate change impacts fresh water resources.
 The cryosphere is one of the largest water bodies on earth.
The main objects of the cryosphere are ice caps, mobile land
glaciers, continental glaciers, seasonal snow covers,
permafrost, and glaciers on water bodies (lake and sea ices).
 Cont.

 The main impacts of climate change on water bodies are

 changes in the surface runoff
 increases in stream flows from melted ice
 glacier melting
 increased extreme precipitation
 decreased surface runoff in summer
 decreased ground water reservoir
 and increased carbon and nutrients in water
 Cont.

 According to instrumental observations, the last two decades

have been the worst years in terms of instances of drought
and extreme precipitation-flood events along with 1950s and
there are absolute trends in extreme precipitation events.
 The frequency and intensity of local precipitation have
changed owing to global
 warming or changes in atmospheric circulation in the 20th
century.
 There are serious changes in snowfall events and the number
of snowy days, and snow melts start earlier than before in the
northern hemisphere.
 Cont.

 Since the 1960s, evaporation has increased and alterations

have been observed in soil humidity.
 Surface runoff is altering owing to variations in temperature
and precipitation since 1950. For example, stream flows
decreased in southern and eastern parts of Europe but
increased in all other areas.
 Extreme rainfall events have increased since the 1950s,
consequently, erosion effects of precipitation, the extent of
soil erosion, and the amount of sediment accumulation by
rivers has increased.
 Cont.

 Soil moisture has decreased and forest fires have increased

because of decreasing precipitation in different places of the
world.
 Example: soil erosion has decreased in the Yellow River Basin
and the Yangtze River Basin because of decreased precipitation.
 Flood frequency and magnitude has increased on a global scale
because of the anthropogenic factors of climate change.
 Trends in extreme precipitations and stream flows indicate that
flood risk has increased all around the world.
Fresh Water and Climate Change

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MjegikYedko
Projected changes on the water cycle

 Climate projections for the future are accomplished using physical-

based climate models.
 According to these global and regional climate models, evaporation
will increase because of warmer climate conditions in the future.
 Long-term projections of evaporation do not show certain results
because evaporation is affected not only by air temperatures, but
also by soil moisture, CO2 concentrations, and plant cover changes.
 It is expected that evaporation will increase in southern Europe,
Central America, southern Africa, and Siberia. The number of hot
days and heat waves will increase along with evaporation
 Cont.

 It is anticipated that fresh water shortages will increase all

around the world due to higher demands by growing
populations and increased evaporation.
 Therefore, direct and indirect water needs of populations will
increase. Agricultural areas are one of the biggest consumers
of both surface water and ground water. If precipitation
decreases, soil moisture will decrease and the water needs of
soils will increase.
 Cont.

 In the future, it is expected that rivers will reach their peak in

spring instead of summer owing to vanishing glaciers and ice
caps. It is estimated that if glacier melt continues, glacier-
covered areas will narrow and this will increase surface
runoff and stream flows.
 Climate simulations indicate that average annual precipitation
will increase in high latitudes and the humid tropics, but it
will decrease in the dry tropics. There are constant
uncertainties the amount of precipitation in China, south Asia,
and large parts of South Americ.
 Cont.

 Despite increased snow melt, it is expected that the amount

and level of ground water will decrease in the future.
 Generally, ground water levels and the number of fountains,
which are fed by ground water, will increase where surface
runoff is increased.
 Ground water level is expected to decrease despite the
amount of rainfall remaining the same where the amount of
snowfall decrease in North America. Increases in sea level
rise result in ground water being invaded by salty water, and
this will make ground waters salty and decrease fresh water
resources.
 Cont.

 The frequency and intensity of heavy precipitations and soil

erosion will increase while total precipitation decreases.
 Soil erosion is expected to increase in dry and semi-dry areas
where only one rainfall accounts for more than 80% of total
annual rainfall.
 Climate change will affect the amount of sediment carried in
rivers by affecting discharge and land cover..
 Soil erosion and suspended sediments in rivers will increase
in cold regions owing to increased precipitation, glacier
melting, permafrost melting, and transformation of snowfalls
to rainfalls.
Climate Change: The Water Paradigm

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q8B4tST8ti8
Water availability and water demand
in the future

 80% of the world’s population is already affected by water

security due to increased water demands, decreased
availability, and pollution factors.
 Climate change may affect water security by affecting the
availability of water. Studies have demonstrated that fresh
water resources will decrease, especially in Mediterranean
environments and southern Africa, and that variations in
water availability will increase in southern and eastern Asia.
 Cont.

 Due to climate change, rainfall variations will increase and

these variations will alter some climate related events such
increased stream flows and decreased surface runoff through
decreased snow and ice deposits.
 Similarly, climate simulations predict a decreasing trend in
ground water resources as well. Some simulations suggest a
linear decreasing trend in ground water owing to global
temperature increases.
 Cont.

 Climate change will alter temperature, precipitation, and

radiation time, and these alterations will affect the water needs
of vegetation, which are fed by precipitation or irrigation. It is
likely to increase the amount of irrigation in 40% of Europe,
USA, and some parts of Asia.
 Rivers that are fed by rainfall are more sensitive to the impacts
of climate change. Types of agricultural products will be altered
with changing quantities of precipitation in the future.
 The negative impacts of climate change on agricultural areas
may be decreased by widening irrigated agricultural areas and
increasing irrigation
 Cont.

 Some important aspects of climate change are temperature

increase, decreased snow and ice cover, and temperature and
evaporation increases in lakes and rivers, and these changes
will decrease the amount of fresh water available where they
occur.
 Consequently, water demands will increase and central and
local governments will need to secure fresh water resources.
 The need for human-developed water depots will increase
owing to decreased stream flows, and severe and intense
droughts.
 Cont.

 Increased water temperatures will increase organic material

compounds in water and different purification and cleaning
processes will be required.
 Drier climate conditions will increase pollutant intensity in
water. This issue is a more important problem where ground
water resources are already polluted.
 Flood-affected surface runoff will increase and, owing to
this, the amount of pathogens, nutrients, and suspending
sediments in waters will increase.
 Cont.

 Increases in sea level will affect both surface and ground

water negatively and, in particular, areas where the ground
water level is low will be negatively affected more
significantly.
 The Future of Water

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4URapRHxsmE
 Summary

 Water is one of the main requirements for human life and the
distribution of fresh water resources is being affected by the
climatic conditions of the earth.
 Scientific studies have demonstrated that the climate of the
earth has changed since the beginning of 20th century owing
to anthropogenic factors.
 Consequently, the frequency and magnitude of extreme
weather events such as floods and droughts, have increased
across almost the whole world.
 Cont.

 As a result, it is important to determine possible changes in

climates and their effects on the environment in order to take
necessary precautions.
 It is expected that climate change will affect water resources
in a positive way in some parts of the world like the Arabian
Peninsula and the Polar Regions, but most of the world’s
water resources, including Turkey’s, are going to be
negatively affected.
 Climate change is expected to increase the frequency and
intensity of extreme precipitation events all around the world
Our Global Water Crisis

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vB68xvRb2T4&t=77s
Section 2
 Homework 2

Write about 1500 words

 Explain briefly the impact of climate change on water
resource in developing and developed countries? Give an
example