C1: Carbon

Chemistry
C1a: Making Crude Oil
Useful
 Fossil Fuels
• Crude oil, gas and coal are fossil fuels
• Fossil fuels are finite resources and are non-renewable
• Non-renewable fuels take a very long time to be formed and
are used up faster than they are formed
• Finite resources are either no longer being made or being
made extremely slowly
• Crude oil is a mixture of many hydrocarbons – molecules
containing carbon and hydrogen only
• Problems associated with the nature of crude oil:
-all the readily extractable resources will be used up in the
future
-finding replacements
-conflicts between making petrochemicals and fuels
Fractional Distillation basics
• Fractional distillation
separates crude oil into
useful products called
fractions
• It works because of different
boiling points
• LPG, petrol, diesel, paraffin,
heating oil, fuel oils and
bitumen are fractions
obtained from crude oil
• LPG contains propane and
butane gases
How Fractional Distillation works
• The process…
1. Crude oil is heated at the bottom of a fractioning column
which has a temperature gradient (cold at the top, hot at the
bottom)
2. Fractions containing mixtures of hydrocarbons are obtained
3. Fractions contain many substances with similar boiling points
4. Oil that doesn’t boil sinks as a thick liquid to the bottom
(Bitumen). Bitumen has a very high boiling point. It ‘exits’ at
the bottom of the column
5. Other fractions boil and their gases rise up the column.
Fractions with lower boiling points ‘exit’ towards the top of
the column
Why Fractional Distillation works
• Crude oil can be separated because the hydrocarbons in different
fractions have differently sized molecules
• The forces between the molecules are intermolecular forces and are
broken during boiling
• The molecules of the liquid separate from each other as large molecules
of gas
• Large molecules, such as those of bitumen and heavy oil, have strong
forces of attraction. A lot of energy is needed to break the forces
between the molecules. These fractions have high boiling points
• Smaller molecules, such as petrol, have weak attractive forces between
them and are easily separated. Less energy is needed to break the
forces between the molecules. These fractions have low boiling points
• Although the intermolecular forces between the molecules break, the
covalent bonds within the molecules do not.
Problems in extracting crude oil
• Environmental problems involved in the
exploitation of crude oil:
-oil slicks as a result of accidents
-damage to wildlife & beaches
-damage to birds’ feathers resulting in death
-use of detergents to clean it up can be harmful
• Political problems involved:
-UK dependant on oil and gas from LEDCs
-future supply issues
Cracking
• Cracking is a process that needs a catalyst and a high temperature
• It converts large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller, more useful
ones.
• This helps to meet the demands for petrol.
• It converts alkane molecules into smaller alkane and alkene
molecules
• It makes useful alkene molecules that can be used to make
polymers

Cracking liquid
paraffin in a lab
C1b: Using Carbon
Fuels
Fossil Fuels
• Factors to consider when choosing the best fuel for a
particular purpose: energy value, availability,
storage, cost, ease of use, toxicity and pollution. E.g.:

• The amount of fossil fuels being burnt is increasing

due to increasing word population and the growth of
use in developing countries such as China and India
Complete Combustion
• Combustion of a fuel releases useful heat energy
• There needs to be a plentiful supply of oxygen for
complete combustion to take place so that oxygen
reacts with all of the carbon, making it safe
• Complete combustion of a hydrocarbon makes only
carbon dioxide and water
• Word equation: hydrocarbon + oxygen -> carbon
dioxide + water
e.g. methane + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water
• Symbol equation: CH4 + 2O2 -> CO2 + 2H2O
Complete Combustion experiment
Incomplete Combustion
• Incomplete combustion takes place when there is not enough oxygen
• When a Bunsen flame is blue, the air hole is open which means it can react with
gas from the air and this is why it releases more energy than a yellow flame
where it can only react with the gas already in the chimney, this produces a lot
of soot
• Incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon can make carbon monoxide, carbon
(soot) and water
• Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas
• Word equations:
fuel + oxygen -> carbon monoxide + water OR
fuel + oxygen -> carbon + water
• Symbol equations (e.g.s):
2CH4 + 3O2 -> 2CO + 4H2O OR
CH4 + O2 -> C + 2H2O
• Complete combustion is better than incomplete combustion because more
energy is released and no toxic products are made
C1c: Clean Air
Our Air
• Air contains oxygen, nitrogen, water vapour and carbon
dioxide
• The carbon cycle explains why the levels remain the same…

• Over the last few centuries the percentage of carbon dioxide

has increased slightly. Deforestation means less
photosynthesis takes place and increasing population means
that the world’s energy requirements increase
Evolution of the Atmosphere
1. Degassing of early volcanoes producing an
atmosphere rich in water vapour and carbon
dioxide
2. Condensing of water vapour from oceans
3. Dissolving of carbon dioxide in ocean waters
4. Relative increase of nitrogen due to it’s lack of
reactivity
5. Development of photosynthetic organisms
6. Increase in oxygen levels due to photosynthesis
Air pollutants
• Carbon monoxide: a poisonous gas formed by the
incomplete combustion of petrol and diesel in car
engines
• Oxides of Nitrogen: causes photochemical smog
and acid rain and are formed in the internal
combustion engine
• Sulfur Dioxide: causes acid rain that will kill plants
and aquatic life, erode stonework and corrode
metals and is formed when sulfur impurities in
fossil fuels burn
Controlling air pollution
• The high temperatures inside an internal combustion engine
allows nitrogen to react with oxygen because nitrogen needs a
very high temperature to make it reactive
• A catalytic converter removes carbon monoxide from the exhaust
gases of a car by changing it into carbon dioxide
• It is important to control the atmospheric pollution because of
the effects it can have on health, the natural environment and
the built environment
• In a catalytic converter, a reaction between nitric oxide and
carbon monoxide takes place on the surface of a catalyst. The
two gases formed are natural components of air: nitrogen and
carbon dioxide
• The equation:
2CO + 2NO -> N2 + 2CO2
C1d: Making Polymers
Hydrocarbon basics
• Carbon and hydrogen are chemically combined to form
hydrocarbons
• A hydrocarbon is a compound formed between carbon atoms
and hydrogen atoms only
• We can recognize a hydrocarbon from its display formula
because we will see that it only contains Carbon (C) and
Hydrogen (H) atoms. These also tell us their chemical formula
because we just count the number of each type of atom. E.g…
This has 2 Carbons and 6 hydrogens so the
chemical formula is: C2H6 which is
ethane
Alkenes/Alkanes & Saturated/Unsaturated
• A saturated compound is one which contains single covalent
bonds only between carbon atoms (When you know the number
of Carbons it has, you simply double that number and +2 to find
the number of hydrogens it has)
• A unsaturated compound is one which contains at least one
double bond (2 shared pairs of electrons) between carbon atoms
• Alkanes are hydrocarbons that contain single covalent bonds only
• Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain at least one double bond
This display formula tells us it is C3H6 which is propene. This is a
monomer (a molecule that can be bonded to other identical
molecules to form a polymer) – it forms polypropene
• Bromine is used to test for an alkene. When orange bromine water
is added to an alkene it decolourises. The bromine and alkene
form a new compound by an addition reaction. A dibromo
compound forms which is colourless.
Polymers
• Large molecules, called polymers, are made when many small molecules,
called monomers, join together in a polymerisation reaction
• This is the display formula of the polymer polyethene from the monomer
ethene:

• Addition polymerization is the process in which many alkene monomers

react to give a polymer. This reaction needs high pressure and a catalyst
• During an addition polymerization reaction, a long chain is made until it is
stopped. The reaction causes the double bond in the monomer to break
and each of the two carbon atoms form a new bond
• Addition polymerization involves the reaction of many unsaturated
monomer molecules (alkenes) to form a saturated polymer
C1e: Designer Polymers
Polymers and their uses
• Strong, rigid polymers (e.g. high density polyethene) are
used to make plastic bottles
• Light, stretchable polymers (e.g. low density polyethene)
are used for plastic bags and squeezable bottles. This
polymer has a low melting point so is useless for coping
with heat.
• PVC is strong and durable and can be made either rigid or
stretchy. The rigid kind is used to make window frames and
piping and the stretchy kind is used to make synthetic
leather
• Polystyrene foam is used in packaging to protect breakable
things, and it is also used to make disposable cups (the
trapped air in the foam makes it a brilliant thermal
insulator)
Structure of polymers
• Atoms in plastics are held together by strong covalent bonds
• plastics that have weak intermolecular
forces between polymer molecules
have low melting points and can be
stretched easily as the polymer
molecules can slide over one another
• plastics that have strong forces between the polymer molecules
(covalent bonds or cross linking bridges) have high melting
points, cannot be stretched and are rigid.
GORE-TEX®
• Nylon is used in clothing
• Nylon is tough, lightweight, keeps water out and keeps UV
light out but does not let water vapour through it which
means that sweat condenses
• GORE-TEX® fabric has all of the properties of nylon but is also
breathable
• GORE-TEX® has been a great help to active outdoor people
because it means they can cope with perspiration and
precipitation at the same time
• GORE-TEX® and similar materials are breathable because the
nylon layer is laminated with PTFE (polyurethane membrane).
The holes in the membrane are too small for water to pass
through but big enough to let water vapour through. The
membrane is combined with nylon to make it stronger.
Future polymers
• Many polymers are non-biodegradable and so will not
decay or decompose by bacterial action
• Polymers can be disposed by land-fills, burning or
recycling
• Scientists are trying to develop polymers that dissolve
and ones that are biodegradable
• Research into new ones is important because disposal of
non-biodegradable polymers means landfill sites get
filled quickly and landfill means wasting land that could
be valuable for other purposes. Disposal by burning
makes toxic gases and this and landfill both wastes the
crude oil uses to make these polymers. It is difficult to
sort out different polymers so recycling is difficult.
C1f: Cooking and food
additives
Cooking
• A chemical change takes place if there is a new substance
made, the process is irreversible and an energy change takes
place
• Cooking food is a chemical change because a new substance
is formed and the process cannot be reversed
• Protein molecules in eggs and meat change shape when they
are cooked which is called denaturing
• The texture of meat and egg change when they are cooked
because the shape of the protein molecules permanently
changes
• A potato is easier to digest when cooked because the cell
walls rupture resulting in a loss of the rigid structure and
softer texture. The starch grains also swell up and spread out
Food Additives
• Types of food additives:
-antioxidants: stops foods from reacting with oxygen
-food colours: give food an improved colour
-flavour enhancers: give food an improved flavour
-emulsifiers: help oil and water mix and not separate
• Emulsifiers are molecules that have a water loving
(hydrophilic) part and a fat loving (hydrophobic) part
• Emulsifiers help oil and water mix because the
hydrophilic end bonds with the
water molecules and the
hydrophobic end bonds with
the fat molecules
Baking Powder
• Baking powder is used in baking cakes because the carbon dioxide
produced makes the cake rise
• You can use limewater to test for carbon dioxide. If it goes
milky/cloudy then carbon dioxide is present.
• When you heat baking powder it undergoes thermal decomposition
which is when a substance breaks down into simpler substances
when heated
• Baking powder contains the chemical: sodium hydrocarbonate
• The word equation for the thermal decomposition of sodium
hydrocarbonate:
Sodium hydrocarbonate -> sodium carbonate + carbon dioxide +
water
• The symbol equation for the thermal decomposition of sodium
hydrocarbonate:
2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
C1g: Smells
Esters
• Cosmetics are either synthetic or natural depending on
their source
• Esters are perfumes that can be made synthetically
• Alcohols react with acid to make an ester and water
alcohol + acid -> ester + water
• Experiment to make an ester:
-The acid is added to the alcohol
and heated
-The condenser stops the gas from
escaping and helps to cool it down
again, so that it can react more
-The condenser allows the reaction
to go on for longer
Perfume properties
• Necessary properties of a perfume:
-Easily evaporates (volatile): so the perfume particles can reach
the nose
-Non-toxic: so it is not poisonous
-Does not react with water: so it does not react with sweat and
water
-Does not irritate the skin: so it can be directly applied on the skin
-Insoluble in water: so it does not wash off easily
• The volatility (ease of evaporation) of perfumes can be
explained in terms of kinetic theory…In order to evaporate,
particles need sufficient energy to overcome the attraction to
other molecules in the liquid. Only weak attractions exist
between particles in the liquid perfume so it is easy to overcome
this attraction
Solvents
• Key terms:
-Solvent: a liquid in which solutes are dissolved to form a solution
-Solute: a substance which dissolves in a liquid to form a solution
-Solution: a mixture of solvent and solute that does not separate out
-Soluble: a substance that can dissolve in a liquid
-Insoluble: a substance that can’t dissolve in a liquid
• Esters can be used as solvents
• Nail-varnish remover dissolves nail-varnish colours
• Water will not dissolve nail-varnish colours because the attraction
between water molecules is stronger than the attraction between
water molecules and the particles in the nail-varnish. Also, the
attraction between the particles in the nail-varnish is stronger than
the attraction between water molecules and particles in the nail-
varnish
Animal Testing
• Testing of cosmetics on animals is banned in the EU
because of concerns of animal welfare
• New cosmetic products need to be thoroughly
tested before they are permitted to be used in order
to ensure that they are safe for us to use
• Some people think its worth testing cosmetic
products on animals to check that they wont
damage humans
• Some people think it is wrong to cause suffering to
animals just to test the safety of a cosmetic product
– especially when the results of the animal tests
might not be conclusive
C1h: Paints and
Pigments
Paint
• Ingredients of paint:
-Solvent: thins the paint and makes it easier to spread
-Binding Medium: sticks the pigment in the paint to the
surface
-Pigment: the substance that gives paint its colour
• Oil paints have pigment dispersed in an oil and often a
solvent that dissolves oil
• Paint is a colloid where the particles are mixed and
dispersed with particles of a liquid but are not dissolved
• The components of a colloid will not separate because the
particles are scattered or dispersed throughout the
mixture and are sufficiently small so they don’t settle at
the bottom
How Paints Dry
• Most paints dry because they are applied as a thin layer
and the solvent evaporates
• Oil paints dry because the solvent evaporates and the oil is
oxidised by atmospheric oxygen
• Emulsion paints are water-based paints that dry when the
solvent evaporates

Emulsion paints

Oil paints
Thermochromic Pigments
• Thermochromic pigments change colour when heated or
cooled
• Uses:
-as thermometers because they change colour when the
temperature of a body or a fridge rises
-in the manufacture of some cups: the colour changes to
show when they are hot
-in electric kettles to keep users safe when boiling water
-in babies’ spoons and bath toys to warn if the spoon or toy is
too hot to give a baby
• Thermochromic pigments can be added to acrylic paints to
make even more colour changes
Phosphorescent Pigments
• Phosphorescent pigments can glow in the
dark
• They can glow in the dark because they
absorb and store energy then release it as
light over a period of time
• These pigments are much safer than
alternative radioactive substances