Respiratory System

Biology for Majors

Direct Diffusion

This flatworm’s process of

respiration works by diffusion
across the outer membrane
Tracheal System in Insects

The tracheal system (not the circulatory system) carries oxygen to the entire body efficiently
Skin and Gills in Fish
Mammalian Respiratory
System
Trachea and Bronchi

Air enters the respiratory system

through the nasal cavity and pharynx,
and then passes through the trachea
and into the bronchi, which bring air
into the lungs
Lungs
Alveoli
Protective Mechanisms

The bronchi and bronchioles contain

cilia that help move mucus and other
particles out of the lungs
Lung Capacity

The lungs can hold a large volume of air, but they are not usually filled to maximal capacity.
Lung volume measurements include tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume, inspiratory
reserve volume, and residual volume. The sum of these equals the total lung capacity
Lung Volumes and Capacities (Avg Adult Male)
Volume/Capacity Definition Volume (liters) Equations
Amount of air inhaled during a normal
Tidal volume (TV) 0.5 –
breath
Expiratory reserve Amount of air that can be exhaled after a
1.2 –
volume (ERV) normal exhalation
Inspiratory reserve Amount of air that can be further inhaled
3.1 –
volume (IRV) after a normal inhalation
Air left in the lungs after a forced
Residual volume (RV) 1.2 –
exhalation
Maximum amount of air that can be
ERV+TV+IR
Vital capacity (VC) moved in or out of the lungs in a single 4.8
V
respiratory cycle
Volume of air that can be inhaled in
Inspiratory capacity (IC) 3.6 TV+IRV
addition to a normal exhalation
Functional residual Volume of air remaining after a normal
2.4 ERV+RV
capacity (FRC) exhalation
Total lung capacity Total volume of air in the lungs after a RV+ERV+TV
6.0
(TLC) maximal inspiration +IRV
How much air can be forced out of the
Forced expiratory
lungs over a specific time period, usually ~4.1 to 5.5 –
volume (FEV1)
one second
Human Lung Volumes and Capacities
Equations for Gas Exchange

P=(Patm)×(percent content in mixture)

Patm, the atmospheric pressure, is the sum of all of the partial pressures of the atmospheric gases
added together,
Patm=PN2+PO2+PH2O+PCO2=760 mm Hg×(percent content in mixture)
Gas Exchange Across the Alveoli
Boyle’s Law

Boyle’s Law is the gas law that states that in a closed space, pressure and volume are inversely
related. As volume decreases, pressure increases and vice versa 
The Lungs, Chest Wall, and Diaphragm in Respiration
Pleura

A tissue layer called pleura

surrounds the lung and interior of
the thoracic cavity
The Work of Breathing

• Flow-resistive refers to the work of the alveoli and tissues in the lung

• Elastic work refers to the work of the intercostal muscles, chest wall, and diaphragm.
Increasing the respiration rate increases the flow-resistive work of the airways and decreases the
elastic work of the muscles.
The Ratio of FEV1 to FVC
Types of Lung Disease
Obstructive
Restrictive
• Airway obstruction results in slow exhalation
• FVC is reduced but airways are not
as well as reduced FVC
obstructed, so the person is able to expel air
reasonably fast • Emphysema
• Respiratory distress syndrome • Asthma
• Pulmonary fibrosis • pulmonary edema
Ventilation/Perfusion Mismatch

• As cardiac output increases, the number of capillaries and arteries that are perfused (filled
with blood) increases
• At times, however, there is a mismatch between the amount of air (ventilation, V) and the
amount of blood (perfusion, Q) in the lungs
Dead Space

Dead space are regions of broken down or blocked lung tissue. Dead spaces reduce the surface
area available for gas diffusion. As a result, the amount of oxygen in the blood decreases,
whereas the carbon dioxide level increases. Dead space is created when no ventilation and/or
perfusion takes place:
• Anatomical dead space or anatomical shunt, arises from an anatomical failure
• Physiological dead space or physiological shunt, arises from a functional impairment of the
lung or arteries
Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells that is comprised of two alpha and two beta
subunits that surround an iron-containing heme group. Oxygen readily binds this heme group
Oxygen Dissociation Curve

The oxygen dissociation curve demonstrates that, as the partial pressure of oxygen increases,
more oxygen binds hemoglobin. However, the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen may shift to
the left or the right depending on environmental conditions
Diseases and Oxygen Binding

Individuals with sickle cell anemia have crescent-shaped red blood cells. Disease states and
altered conditions in the body can affect the binding ability of oxygen, and increase or decrease
its ability to dissociate from hemoglobin
Transport of Carbon Dioxide in the Blood

Carbon dioxide can be transported through the blood via three methods:
• dissolved directly in the blood
• bound to plasma proteins or hemoglobin
• converted into bicarbonate
Practice Question

Why is the mammalian left lung smaller than the right lung?
Quick Review

• How does air pass from the outside environment to the lungs?
• How does gas pressure influence how gases move into and out of the body?
• How do the structures of the respiratory system control the mechanics of breathing?
• How are gases transported in the body?