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M S E 6 0 0 Te c h n o l o g y a n d D e v e l o p m e n t
DEFINITION OF
TECHNOLOGY
In our e v e r y d a y lives, m o s t of u s u s e a n u m b e r
of w o rd s that w e a s s u m e h a v e a universal,
a g r e e d - u p o n , a n d a c c e p t e d m e a n i n g for all
p e o p l e in all co ntex ts.
Oft en, t h e m o r e fre que ntly t h e wo rd is

u s e d , the
m o r e w e t a ke for g ra n t e d that our u s a g e is the
o n l y p o s s i b le u s a g e of t h e te r m .
O n e s u c h po pul ar word freely b a n d i e d a b o u t a n d
v“ teer yc hmnuocl ogh iny-”v. og ue j a rgo n now-a-d a y s is

DEFINITION OF
TECHNOLOGY
T h e wo rd “ t e c h n o l o g y ” c o m p r i s e s t wo p a r t s –
“t e c h n i k o s ” & “o l o g y ”
T h e historical de r i vati o n of the t e r m te c h n o l o g y

c o m e s f ro m t h e G r e e k word technikos ,
m e a n i n g “ of art, skillful, practical ”
T h e porti on of the w o rd ology i nd icate s

“ knowledge of ” or a “ systematic treatment
of .”
DEFINITION OF
TECHNOLOGY
T h u s , t h e literal v e r b a ti m d e r i va ti o n of t h e
t e r m technology i s literally “ knowledge
of the skilful a nd practical ”
H o w e v e r, t h i s defi niti on i s too g e n e r a l in

n a t u r e a n d w e h a v e to t r a n s c e n d this
n a r ro w v i e w of t e c h n o l o g y s i n c e e v e r y
t e c h n o l o g y s t a r t s f ro m a h u m a n p u r p o s e ,
f ro m t h e i ntenti on to s a ti s f y s o m e h u m a n
n e e d or b e h av i o u r.
DEFINITION OF
TECHNOLOGY
I n d e e d , technology is t h e m a n i p u l ati o n
of n a t u r e for h u m a n p u r p o s e .
T h i s defi niti on re ta i n s t h e n o ti o n s of bo th
k n o w l e d g e a n d p ra c ti ca l i t y ( h u m a n
p u r p o s e s ) b u t a d d s t h e n e w c o n c e p t of
m a n i p u l a ti o n of n at u re .
DEFINITION OF
TECHNOLOGY
T h i s i m p l i e s t h at all p ra c ti c a l or t e c h n i c a l
s k il ls u l ti m at e l y d e r i v e f ro m a lterati o ns
or m a n i p u l a ti o n of n at u re .
Technology d e p e n d s o n a b a s e in t h e
n at u ra l wor ld ( S c i e n c e ) b u t e x t e n d s t h e
n at u ra l wo rld t h ro u g h t h e p h e n o m e n o n
of m a n i p u l a ti o n ( E n g i n e e r i n g ) .
DEFINITION OF
TECHNOLOGY
Technology o n t h e other h a n d , is
t h e b ra n c h of k n o w l e d g e that d e a l s with the

c re ati on a n d u s e of te c h n i ca l m e a n s a n d their
interrelati on with life, soc iet y, a n d the
e nv i ro n m e nt , d raw i n g u p o n s u c h s u b j e c t s a s
industrial arts, e n g i n e e r i n g , a p p l i e d s c i e n c e ,
a n d p u re s c i e n c e
•
t h e s u m of t h e w a y s in w h i c h soc ia l g r o u p s
p ro v i d e t h e m s e l v e s with t h e m ate r i a l obje cts
of their civilizati on.

DEFINITION OF
TECHNOLOGY
Engineering technology i s c o n c e r n e d
wit h t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g d e v i c e s —
h a r d w a r e for e d u c a ti o n like, a u d i o - v i d e o
a i d s , te lev is i o n , c o m p u t e r, etc . ( E r i c
A s h b y, 1 9 6 7 )
ETHICS OF TECHNOLOGY
B y our v e r y defi niti on, t e c h n o l o g y m a n i p u l at e s

n at u re for h u m a n p u r p o s e s .
Te c h n o l o g y m a n i p u l a t e s n at u re .
M an is a p ar t of nature.
B y m a n i p u l a ti n g nat u re , m a n m a n i p u l a te s
him self.
T h e v e r y r e a s o n of t e c h n o l o g y i s h u m a n
p ur p os e .
W h a t is t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p u r p o s e of h u m a n life?
Is it to i n c re a s e s t a n d a rd of living?
Is it to i m p r o v e qual it y of life?
O r is it to h a v e g re a te r sati sfacti on in life?
We c a n disti ll all t h e s e va r i o u s a s p e c t s into a

s i n g l e holisti c co n c e pt :
VALUE OF H U M A N LIFE
T h u s , t h e c a rd i n a l a i m of t e c h n o l o g y i s to e n h a n c e t h e
v a l u e of h u m a n life.
TECHNOLOGY and the VALUE OF H U M A N LIFE
L e t u s d e fi n e t h e v a l u e of h u m a n life a s t h e b a l a n c e or
rati o b e t w e e n s ati s fa c ti o n or h a p p i n e s s a n d p a i n or
s u ff e r in g .
M S E 6 0 0 Te c h n o l o g y a n d
VALUE OF H UM AN LIFE =
HAPPINESS/SUFFERING
In t h e c o ntex t of this defi niti on, t h e ulti mate

p u r p o s e of t e c h n o l o g y is to e n h a n c e t h e v a l u e of
h u m a n life, with a long- t e r m p e rs p e c ti ve , b y
m a x i m i z a ti o n of h a p p i n e s s a n d sati sfacti on a n d
a c o n c o m i ta nt re duc ti on or m i n i m i zati o n of pa in
a n d suff e ring ( p hys i ca l , m e n t a l a n d em oti onal).
A s a g e n e ra l i zati o n , p e o p l e w a n t a bett er
life.
A bett e r life m a y u s u a l l y m e a n t h i n g s
like:
•
f r e e d o m f ro m wa nt ,
•
a c c e s s to a n d p o s s e s s i o n of at l e a st
s o m e of t h e “ n o n - e s s e nti a l s ”,
•
c o m fo r t s or l u xu r i e s ,
•
g o o d he a lt h , M S E 6 0 0 Te c h n o l o g y a n d D e v e l o p m e n t
•
t h e a b s e n c e of e m o ti o n a l st re s s ,
•
s a ti s f y i n g h u m a n re lati o n s ( re s u l ti n g
f ro m g ra ti f y i n g w o r k e x p e r i e n c e a n d
m e a n i n g f u l inte r pe rs o na l
•
re l ati o ntshi
intellec ua lpssti
) , m u l ati o n , a n d p e rs o n a l l y
•
r e w a r d i n g l e i s u re ac ti viti e s.
H UM AN NEEDS and VALUES
H u m a n n e e d s a n d v a l u e s c h a n g e t h ro u g h ti m e
a s te c h n o l o g y a d v a n c e s .
M an t e n d s to a c c e p t t h e fruits of n e w
te c h n o l o g y
m o r e re ad il y (sati sfacti on, p l e a s u re , h a p p i n e s s ,
comfort) w h e r e a s h e is re luctant to a c c e p t
c h a n g e s in h i s p e rs o n a l life.
T h u s , s o c i a l a n d c ultural c h a n g e s a l w a y s l a g
behind technology causing a mismatch and
d i s c o n n e c t w h i c h c o n s e q u e nt l y l e a d s to
u n h a p p i n e s s , dissati sfacti on, p a i n a n d suff ering
( e m oti on al ) a n d c o n c o m i t a nt lowe r ing of the
v a l u e of h u m a n life.
A c r u d e b u t prac ti cal w a y of c l a s s i f y i n g h u m a n
v a l u e s is to d i v i d e n e e d s into t h o s e that a re
e s se nti a l l y p hysi ol o gi ca l a n d t h o s e that a re
psyc h ol og i cal .
Most n e w t e c h n o l o g i e s c a t e r to t he
p hys i o l o g i c a l a s p e c t b y p e r fo r m i n g
Dangerous,
Dirty, or
tDhief frei cbuyl te njohba sn c(itnhget

h3eDv’asl)u e of h u m a n life.
A s r e g a r d s t h e p syc h o l o g i c a l a s p e c t , a n e x a m p l e
p e r ta i ni ng to Informati on Te c h n o l o g y (IT) m a y
b e in order.
Informati on Te c h n o l o g y (IT) c a t e rs to two u n i q u e

c a t e g o r i e s of p syc h o l o g i c a l n e e d s of h u m a n s :
Cognitive Needs – w h i c h refer to t h e h u m a n

n e e d for informati on s o a s to b e r e a d y to a c t or
m a k e d e c i s i o n s that m a y b e re quire d, a n d
Affective Needs – w h i c h refer to t h e e m oti ona l

re q u i re m e nt s of h u m a n , s u c h a s their n e e d to d o
c h a l l e n g i n g wor k, to k n o w their wo r k h a s va l u e ,
to feel p e rs o n a l l y s e c u r e , a n d to b e in control.
U n d u e e m p h a s i s o n co g n i ti ve n e e d s a n d
c o n s e q u e n t n e g l e c t of aff e cti ve n e e d s m a y
c a u s e e m o ti o n a l p a i n that c o u n t e r b a l a n c e s the
g a i n s f ro m t e c h n o l o g y a n d this m a y b e
d etr im e ntal to t h e “ v a l u e of h u m a n life” a s a
whole.
TECHNOLOGY IMPACT
ASSESSMENT
Effects and Consequences of Technology
In our h a s t e to m i l k te c h n o l o g y for i m m e d i a t e
e c o n o m i c a d v a n t a g e , w e oft en l o se s i g ht of the
long -t e r m c o n s e q u e n c e s : t h e h i g h e r order a n d
indirect eff ects, e s p e c i a l l y t h e d e l a y e d a n d
u n i nte n d e d eff ec ts of te c h n o l o g y.
T h e S o r e n s o n multi ple eff ec t n et wo r k
m e t h o d o l o g y is a useful te c h n i q u e for a n
at encahl ynzoilno gyth. e( 1ismt

TECHNOLOGY IMPACT
ASSESSMENT
E t h i c a l Te c h n o l o g y M a n a g e m e n t
cr aotmi opnrai sl
et hs i an khi nargmaonndi oeums pbal et hnidc

of understanding
interplay b e t we e nwherein
h u m a n one
cognitive and
affective processes.
studies, analyses an d mitigates the
conflicting
M S E 6 0 0 Technology an d Development
TECHNOLOGY IMPACT
ASSESSMENT
It m a y b e apt to conclude with a c o m m e n t by
R M Pirsig, who states that:
“The wa y to solve the conflict between human

values and technological needs is not to run
away from technology. That is impossible. The
wa y to resolve the conflict is to break down the
barriers of dualistic thought that prevent a real
understanding of what technology i s … not an
exploitation of nature, but a fusion of nature and
t r ahenhs cuemnadns sbpoitrhit” i.nto a new kind of

EVOLUTION & GROWTH
OF TECHNOLOGY
Assuming evolutionary principles as providing
the motivation for h u m a n actions, we
demonstrate that the development of
technology in order to extend habitable space
has had positive evolutionary value.
Extrapolating the current growth of
technology
and associated knowledge, and judging from
developments in information science, we
conclude that technology and knowledge will
exceed h u m a n capacity to handle them
e ffi c i e n tl y , a nd w ill
evolutionary goals obsolete.
EVOLUTION & GROWTH

OF TECHNOLOGY
The history of m a n k i n d is d o m i n a t ed b y the
quest for resources in order to i m p r o v e the
c h a n c e s of survival of the species. This
quest for resources also led to the
e m e r g e n c e of technology, with spaceflight
being the m o s t thorough application. Thus,
the present global motivations, goals, and
m e a n s to a c h i e ve t h e m c a n b e explained to
a large extent in t e r m s of the theory of
evolution.
EVOLUTION & GROWTH
OF TECHNOLOGY
R ecently c o n c ern h a s b e e n raised a bo ut possible
n e ga ti v e i m p a c t s of scientific- technological
d e v e l o p m e n t s on t he m e d i u m - to-long t e r m evolution of
the h u m a n race. M o d e r n medicine, for e x a m p l e , is
increasingly successful in k e ep i ng individuals a live who
would h a v e b e e n e li mi na t ed from t he evolutionary
pro ces s only a few generations a g o (Livingston 1973).
Ei mffpe ac ti rserda ne yge sfirgohmt
(ah aprrmolliefesrsa) tti ona opf rionl di f ievriadtui oanl s owf ith
individuals with im pa ire d resista nce to infectious
d is ea s e s (not harmless). It is evident that a global
undertaking like the c o n qu e s t of space, especially
EVOLUTION & GROWTH
OF TECHNOLOGY
Evolution (as o p p o s e d to dev elo pment ) is not goal-
oriented, it h a s no "direction", e x c e p t that big j u m p s in
c o m p l e x i t y are not possible. Thus, m o r e c o m p l e x
s y s t e m s h a v e to b e p r e c e d e d b y less c o m p l e x systems,
simulating a n "upward" gradient, with t he a ppa rent
"goal" of achievin g perfection.
IcIteirst ai mi npboortuanndtatroy nc otned ti thi oa nt sabi ni l igtieenseer va ol

lwv iel ldcthoa cnogpeet hwoi tshe
conditions. The ecological ni che (or, if w e i nclude
intellectual abilities, the evolutionary niche) evolves
a lo ng with its occupa nts. This m e a n s that there a re no
ath cann ot b e b a c k traced.
EVOLUTION & GROWTH

OF TECHNOLOGY
Evolution of a s pe ci e s c a n continue a lo ng a n e qu a ble
pa t h a s long a s the b o u n d a ry conditions a re s t e a d y a nd
a s long a s the beha v io ur of the m o s t significant fraction
of the individuals is t ele on om o us, i.e. directed towards
pa s s in g o n to their offspring t hos e abilities which in turn
e n a b l e t h e m to m o r e successfully reproduce. Clearly,
stringent bo u n d a ry conditions do not tolerate non-
tme al enokni no dm go eutss bme ho arev icooumr . fAo srt tahbel ee,
vwoel uot ibosnearrvye nai cshhei f ot ffrom c o m m o n go als (at t he

e x p e n s e of the individual) to individual go als a t possible
c o m m o n e xpense , w hich is to s a y that w e b e c a m e m o r e
tolerant towards non-
EVOLUTION & GROWTH
OF TECHNOLOGY
A major point is that there is no difference in the
principles and m ech ani sm s which govern
biological and cultural evolution. In fact, our
humanitarian system of moral values is a
relatively recent product of evolution, and is
only now really taking shape. Evolution itself
knows no "good" or "evil", and when war is an
appropriate teleonomous behaviour it will arise
(Goodall 1985).
EVOLUTION & GROWTH
OF TECHNOLOGY
It is co m m o n l y accepted that mankind acquired
the dominant role on this planet through the
application of technology. Evolutionary, the
ability to produce and use technology is the
result of curiosity, which in turn was useful to
search for sustenance. Helpful in the evolution
of technological abilities was the concurrent
evolution of organizational skills, which are the
foundations of our scientific/ technological
society.
EVOLUTION & GROWTH
OF TECHNOLOGY
Technology provides a w a y to acquire
information about the environment without
having to go through the tedious process of
encoding it into the genetic material. The
ramification is that this body of information can,
and does, grow m u c h faster than if the
information had been gained through genetic
evolution. This process started only
comparatively recently (about 5000 to 10000
years ago), but already it has reached a stage
witheh noumt otesct honf oulogs ciocualldhne olpt

EVOLUTION & GROWTH
OF TECHNOLOGY
As can b e witnessed in everyday life, mankind is
quite h appy to utilize technology without proper
(or ev en any) understanding. It is amazing to
see, for instance, small children using
technological systems like computers, which
were not possible to build, or indeed to
contemplate, only a few generations ago. And
how m a n y adults really know what happens in
their cars when they push down on the
accelerator? This naive utilization of entities, the
pv aral ugem, ai stiac mat etictuhda en i s mof

our ancestors to function in an environment
EVOLUTION & GROWTH

OF TECHNOLOGY
Space
Tc ohne qeuveorl vs epda cme oi st i vbatsi iocna lwl yhti hc he
sc a musee sonmeawn khiinc dh tcoa u s e d early m a n to explore

a n d control their environment: the s e a rch for reso urces
in order to i m p r o v e the c h a n c e s of survival of the
species. The c o n qu e s t of s p a c e is a n e nd e a v o u r w hich
n e e d s the application of all technological m e a n s w hich
h a v e b e e n developed.
There is, however, o n e major difference b e t w e e n s p a ce

projects a n d other technological projects: the lowest limit
in size a n d c o m pl e xi t y is co nsiderable for s p a c e projects,
b y individuals with resources a cces sible to and
EVOLUTION & GROWTH

OF TECHNOLOGY
The history of the U S S p a c e Shuttle p r o g r a m with its
wrong assumptions, s ch e du l e slippages, cost overruns,
a n d final disaster t e a c he s a d ra m a t i c lesson: t he project
h a s b e c o m e too c o m pl e x , it h a s outgrown the ability of
h u m a n s to ma in t a i n a proper overview, to a s s e s s the
ramifications of cha nges , a n d to anticipate operational
needs. For s o m e t i m e it w a s possible to c o m p e n s a t e for
this b y introducing m a n a g e m e n t pro cedure s which
allowed large organizational entities to collaborate
without a thorough u nders t a nding of e a c h other's
activities. This led to a vicious cycle, however: the
m a n a g e m e n t s y s t e m itself, and, in particular, the
a s so ciated bureaucrat ic procedures, b e c a m e opa que, so
t h e y w e re not bei ng followed correctly, or not applied
properly. This, a n d not the technical problems , w a s the
rea s o n for the Cha lle nger a ccident (CMoSvE a6 0u0l Tt e c1h9n o8l o6g y)a. n d
Development
EVOLUTION & GROWTH

OF TECHNOLOGY
Of course this is not to say that we will not go
into space. W e will turn to technology for the
rescue. W e will use computers, in particular we
will use the software techniques known as
artificial intelligence (AI), or, better, cognitive
processing to r em ed y the problem.
EVOLUTION & GROWTH

OF TECHNOLOGY
Computers
Mu ch has been written about the staggering

growth of computer technology during the last
three decades. This growth, however, has so far
been mainly confined to improvements of the
hardware. In fact, most software improvements
can b e traced to improved hardware capabilities
(Albrecht 1985).
EVOLUTION & GROWTH

OF TECHNOLOGY
Computers
This situation is about to c h a n g e dramatically. A lre a dy in

the n ear future d e v e l o p m e n t s in c o m p u t e r s ci e n ce will
render c o m p u t e r p ro g ra m m i n g a s w e k n o w it today
obsolete (Bibel 1985). AI b a s e d S/W t e c h n o l o g y is a bout
to pro vide c o mp u t e rs with natural la ng ua ge
understanding, i m a g e recognition, a n d reasoning
capability. Expert s y s t e m s a lrea d y allow u s to de-
individualize bo dies of kn o w l e dg e a n d m a k e it available
to t he non-expert, or to a nother computer, o n a 24-hour
a d a y basis. K n o w l ed ge b a s e s c a n b e stored, merged,
e x p e r i m e n t e d with a n d c h e c k e d for consistency. It will b e
possible to perform "what-if" operations, the usual
hypothesis building tool u s e d in science, in a n a uto matic
M SE 6 0 0 Technology an d Developmen t
m a nn e r, on k n o w l e dg e b a s e s whi ch a re m u c h larger than
EVOLUTION & GROWTH

OF TECHNOLOGY
Computers
Athl oenagdwvei tnht
tohfensewS /hWarddewvaerleo pwmh eicnht swwillepwroi lvl
isdeee revolutionary man-machine interfaces,

including direct links between the computer and
the h u m a n nervous system. These concepts
were first developed for the rehabilitation of
accident victims through the use of electro-
mechanic artificial limbs; impressive progress
EVOLUTION & GROWTH

OF TECHNOLOGY
Computers
E v e n v e ry careful extrapolation s h o w s that w e a re right

n o w witnessing the begin ning of a d e v e l o p m e n t which
will h a v e e n o r m o u s i m p a c t s o n the further evolution of
m a nk i n d. The original motiva tion to ge n e ra t e a n d use
t echno lo gy h a s c a u s e d m a n k i n d to cre a te technological
s y s t e m s w hich will v e r y s o on outperform h u m a n s in
m a n y a re as of intellectual activities: c o m p u t e r s will be
the better c h e s s players, conversationalists, decision
m a ke rs , a n d conquerors of space. To a c hi e ve all this, we
do not e v e n h a v e to find out h o w the h u m a n brain works,
it is just n e c e s s a ry to pro du ce t he s a m e results.
Thus, computers, through AI s ys te ms , will help us to

successfully co n q ue r spa ce.
HoweverM, SiEn6 0t0hTee c hpn orloo gcy ea nsdsDoe vfe l o p m e n t
EVOLUTION & GROWTH

OF TECHNOLOGY
Impacts on evolutionary boundary
conditions
Evolution's answer to drastic changes of the

boundary conditions has been the elimination of
the species concerned. W e a ssu me that there
will b e no catastrophic changes of the boundary
conditions through the ecological impacts of the
application of technology, or b y war.
EVOLUTION & GROWTH
OF TECHNOLOGY
Looking back at the history of mankind, the
rinetperroadcuticntgi v e rg
aoduvpa(nctla gn,e twribi teh,i npea ospolec i)ahl l yas

always b een with those m e m b e r s of that group
who had the most resources (in terms of
strength, food, territory, money, power). Since
resources can effectively b e gained with the aid
of technology, evolution produced the
technology oriented society which we are now.
MSE 600 Technology and Development
EVOLUTION & GROWTH
OF TECHNOLOGY
There is a high probability that this will change as soon
as technology becomes too complex for most people to
understand, yet is easily accessible to everybody; when
technological systems will be able to answer human
questions, not necessarily correctly, but either to the
satisfaction or beyond the understanding of humans.
As we do now, people will continue the naive use of

technology, even if they do not understand it. However,
as humans are no more needed to produce and master
technological systems, the sociological status of
technology-oriented individuals and thus their
reproductive advantages will decrease. Within a few
generations the desire of mankind to conquer space may
have vanished.
EVOLUTION & GROWTH
OF TECHNOLOGY
Extrapolations
Acosnsuclmudinegtthaet tneocnh-
ndoelsotgruycwtivilleednesvuerleophmumenatnwpehymsia
cyal survival as individuals by providing food, shelter,
and other services. The question arises how the dis-
association of knowledge and technical skills from
humans will impact the fate of the species.
One problem in this extrapolation is that evolutionary

paths in complex systems are quite unpredictable;
another problem is that the "strategies" employed by
EVOLUTION & GROWTH OF
TECHNOLOGY
Extrapolations
Ginivaecnotmhefofratactbltehaetvothluetidoencareyansei
cdhesei lencrteioansepsressure
tolerance towards non-teleonomous behaviour, there
will initially be a wider variety of human types,
physically, psychically and culturally. Which one of
those will usurp reproductive dominance is not
predictable. By way of exclusion we can state that
those who have lost the urge to engage in
heterosexual contact will not. Neither will those that
genetic engineering and in-vitro
feMrStEil6i0z0aTteicohnnolo(gyWanad lDgevaetloepment 1986).
EVOLUTION & GROWTH
OF TECHNOLOGY
Extrapolations
Lweithuosuat sthsuemneetdhato wcoe mevpoeltve
fotorwreasrodus raceso,cinetwy hich therefore the

need for technical knowledge and skill vanishes
because they are not required for the individual, if
impossibility to compete with technological systems,
or
notnot obtainablebecause
discouraged for reasons of cost-
of the effectiveness.
evident
At the same time it should be possible to experience
all varieties of sensory perceptions by means of
advanced man- machine interfaces (artificial reality).
Will mankind use this for widening the intellectual
horizon, or will this capability ratheMrSEb6e00
u se d fo r
T ec h no log y an d Development
EVOLUTION & GROWTH

eternal entertainment? And which group will pass
OF TECHNOLOGY
Extrapolations
Mteacnhknionldogwyilnl
amivoesltyl,iki.el.ywciotntioh
untuefeteolinugsethe need to understand how it
works. It is interesting to note, however, that in
the past there has been a tendency to populate
the incomprehensible parts of the environment
with supernatural beings (spirits, gods), a
technique which seems to provide a working
EVOLUTION & GROWTH
Ex t r a pOo l aFt i oTn sECHNOLOGY
There can be no definite conclusions from these

considerations, except that straight forward
extrapolation from the present situation is
certainly not possible. The conquest of space will
not be a re-play of the expeditions of the
conquistadores, or of the exploration of the
American west. From these exercises men
emerged with their individual intellectual
superiority intact and with the basic
evolutionary boundary conditions unchanged.
The conquest of space, through its implied
technological advances, will chaMSllEe60n0 gTeechntohlogey
ve ry
a n d D e v e l o p me nt
M a n a g i n g Te c h n o l o g y
Increasingly, technology is among an

organization’s most important resources.
As
stoucmhe, ei
t ntehedosrgtoanbiezaptrionp’esrloybmjeactivesga
n
edininanorder efficient way.
Suggested steps to benefit from the use of

2. prepare a business plan with a cost estimate

and a benefits/risk analysis
3m.asienctauirne t he
cfihnoasnecnintgecnhencoelsosgayry to acquire
and
4. obtain adequate staff with technical
expertise
5.secure transportation, warehousing and
distribution of equipment, if applicable
6.ensure adequate testing procedures before
8. create a training plan for staff and user

training
9p.roecsetadbulrieshs
apreopinerpmla aceintenance and backup

10. give users access to a help desk
11.provide a sufficient supply of peripherals and
consumables materials, if applicable
12.prepare adequate replacement plans and
procedures for equipment that can become
obsolete
The importance of managing even common

technology is sometimes lost in the rush to
aessdoepnt tniael wtoteacshuncoclogse
syfualnidmypelet mtheisntcaotuioldn ebprocess.
There may be additional complications when

managing technology for electoral
administration. The level of external scrutiny of
specific technologies may be high and approval
by the legislature as well as other stakeholders
The electoral environment is also relatively

unusual in that technology might be obtained
ftoerchansoploegciyficmealyechtaovrael
teovpeenrtf.oIrnmthoantceaosnly,e
thoen a
specified day, when any system failure would

spell disaster. Testing, verification and backup
plans have to be thorough and reliable to make
sure that the electoral event takes place without
management of technology dictMaSEte60s0 Thechignohlogy and
Development
standards.
The following topics cover the main issues related

to managing technology in the electoral
environment.
Planning and Development Strategies
Quality Assurance
Management Structure
Computer Systems Administration
Staffing, Training and Support
Managing Obsolescence
Evaluation and Audit
T h e I m p a c t o f Te ch n o l o g y
& Business
Technology is an unmistakable economic and

social force in our world. Global
communications, business exchanges,
particularly through electronic commerce, and
the simple tasks that make up our daily lives are
all significantly influenced by technology. (Post,
Lawrence, & Weber, 2008). Since the time of
Aristotle, and perhaps before, business has been
disparaged by people of culture and refinement,
like us. The critics of business have argued that
business, and the people who engage in it, are
narrow in their interests (Kay, 1998).
T h e I m p a c t o f Te ch n o l o g y
& Business
Technology has affected society and its surroundings in a

number of ways. In many societies, technology has
helped develop more advanced economies (including
today's global economy) and has allowed the rise of a
leisure class (Technology, 2008). Technology’s impact on
our society is like asking, what is the impact of trees in
our society (Lynn, 2008). The internet, television and the
radio just to name a few are very essential to society.
They are all forms of mass communications. Educators
today are very excited about the integration of
technology in the class. Technology is being introduced
into the K-12 classroom; teachers are responsible for
implementing technology to assist students with student
achievement. Society depends so much on technology
couldn’t drive! We could not take theMeSEle60v0aTteochrnsolotgoy
o u r
a nd D e v e l o p me n t
T h e I m p a c t o f Te c h n o l o g y o n
Society
". . . the moment man first picked up a stone or a

branch to use as a tool, he altered irrevocably the
this
bpaoliannt coen,btehtewweeany hinimwhaincdh
changed was different. It was no longer regular or
h thiseewnovrNew
predictable. irldonobjects
amroeunappeared
td. Fhriomthat were not
recognizable as a mutation of something that had
existed before, and as each one emerged it altered
the environment not for a season but for ever. While
the number of these tools remained small, their
effect took a long time to spread and to cause
change. But as they increased, so did their effects:
the more the tools, the faster the rate of change."
--James Burke MSE 600 Technology and Development
Society
"Technology is the application of organized

knowledge to practical tasks by ordered systems
of people and machines.“
---Arnold Pacey
History demonstrates that when new inventions

are introduced into a society, the society
changes. In order for us to grasp the scope of
technological change in society, we should
understand the impact of the technology on the
economic, social, political, ethical, and art
activities of a society.
Business Environment and Society
The tremendous technological growth

that we have been experiencing is made
possible through extensive programs of
technological research being conducted
by many types of researchers working
within universities, business, and non-
profit research organizations.
Technological developments are strong
and all pervasive forces of the business
environment. Technology is the
knowledge to practical problems.
Technology feeds on itself and it

affects business in two major ways:
1. Through its impact on society in

general
2. Through its direct influence on
business operations and activities.
Technology affects society. In fact, we

feel its effect on our everyday life. It
affects economic growth, our standard
of living and our culture. However, some
of the effects of technology are highly
beneficial and some detrimental. One
should be careful that these effects on
members of the society in turn affect
business practices.
Technology affects our everyday life. We

are surrounded by so much of
technology, that we take it for granted
and usually do not realize how much it
affects us until we have to do without
electricity, water, transport or telephone.
Technological developments have raised
the standard of living. In spite of
inflationary pressure and considerably a
high degree of unemployment,
families eat better, wear a MSE
wider variety
6 0 0 Technology an d Development
of clothin , and live in m o r e comfortable
Technology also influences basic aspects of

our culture, including religion, education,
mobility, health care, art, language, laws
and their enforcement. For example,
technological advances in health care allow
physicians t o t r e a t their patients in a virtual
e n v i ro n m e n t th r o u g h video conferencing,
which again is helpful in legal environm ent
too for t h e judges t o proceed with
investigations on hard core criminals, who
need n o t be produced before th e court for
security reasons. MSE 6 0 0 Technology an d Development
Every n e w technology is a force

involved in creative destruction. Say,
television hurts
movies, synthetic fibres, rival for cotton
fibre. The discovery of n e w technology even
s o me tim e s affects economic
g row th - TV w i t h its high e n te r ta i n m e n t
value takes
a w a y productive hours of mankin d.
Each n e w technology creates m ajor long
term
nuclear weapons and bom bsM SfEo6 0r0
Ttehc hen o l osg yaa nkd eD e voe l ofp m e n t
Developing nations have to b u y technology f r o m foreign

countries, as t h e y are n o t resourceful in te r m s of capital
needed for Research and Development, expertise,
patents, licenses, e q u i p m e n t and so on. This transfer of
technology involves h u g e costs as a result of which a
vicious circle is for med, in which we ak technology
creates dependence and dependence creates weakness.
The recent t r e nd can be e n u m e r a te d through this slogan,

"Conserve, reduce and recycle". The stress to da y is on
clean production measures, advanced robotics, zero-
emission vehicles, material recycling and alternative
fuels and materials. This change towards love for
e n v i r o n m e n t b y t h e technologists is a sure sign of
positive development. MSE 6 0 0 Technology an d Development
All t h e n e w technologies is a pow er of creative

destruction. They say t h a t Telefilm, synthetic fibres, the
c om petition for c otton hurts fiber. The discovery of the
n e w technologies affect s ometime s economic estimated
TV w i t h its high e n te r t ai n me n t value to delete the
productive hours of h u m a ni t y. Every n e w techno logy is
creating ma j or long-t e r m effects, which is n o t expected
t o always. Make t he United Nations to offer m o r e m o n e y
for t h e d e v e lo p me n t of nuclear weapons, missiles and
b o m b s for security reasons?
Developing countries needed technology f r o m abroad, to

raise capital was n o t an ingenious for research and
dev elopme nt, know-how, patents, licenses, e q ui p m en t
and so on. This transfer of technology is enor mous costs,
as a result is a vicious, w eak t echnoloMgSEy6 0c0rTee ac htneo l so g y a n d
Development
The latest t rend is t o en ume ra t e

through t h e slogan, "save mo n e y,
reduce and
recycle." The focus of measures
today is clean, a u t o ma t e d production,
supply NULL, recycled and alternative
fuels and
af odrvtahnec e dnvmi r aont emr i eanl st.

MSE 6 0 0 Technology an d Development
F o r m s o f Te c h n o l o g y
Earliest f o r m
Stone tools and fire were m o s t likely the

earliest forms of technology, as when
t h e y were first invented it would have
rt oevcol oukt i oanidz eda t hmeier awt
asyafoefl yl i,f en o( te.j gu st. able berries e.t.c.)

was a c o m p u t e r m a d e b y Charles
Babba e in the 1930's.
P r o c e s s Te c h n o l o g y
Gy ouinwt iol l anoyt i coepei sr at ht i e no
p r oancdesosnet eocfhtnhoel ofgirysti t hings

employs. In some operations the process
technology makes itself very evident because it
is large, noisy and sometimes dirty. For
example, in a steel works, t he whole operation is
dominated b y steel processing technology. But
impressive as the steel processing MSE 6 0technology
0 Technology an d Development
does not mean to sa t h a t i t is n ot as i m ortant.
Fspo er nedx amilpliloen, sMocfDdonll aal r sd ’ sohnatvhe
bt ecehnnkonl ogwyn t o which helps to prepare

their food. Saving one or t wo square metres of
space in the kitchen area m a y me an sitting an
extra four or five people in the restaurant area.
If each of these spends $6 every 15 minutes for
356 days a year in every single McDonald’s
outlet, just think of t he extra revenue. In fact,
Ionpf o r mne
i nagt iuopn nperowcepsosisni gb i ltiet icehsnf olrogopi
esr aetsi o n s i al l ycep are

managers. Internet-based technologies have created
some totally new businesses and destroyed others.
But while it is important for operations managers to
understand technology, they do not have to be
technological ‘experts’. In fact it is sometimes a
particular technology on their operations processes.
Life-cycle eff ec ts o n produc t/ serv ice a n d
process technology
If product/service and process technologies can

sensibly be separated in an operation, they will
not always receive equal attention. Sometimes
developing product technology will be seen as
mor e important than developing process
technology and sometimes vice versa. One
factor which influences this is the stage of the
product or service in its life cycle, t ha t is the
illustrates how the relative ratesMSEof6 0 0 Technology an d Development
product/service and process technology
Relative rates of product/service and
process technology innovation vary as
a product matures.
process technology
For example, examine how t he relative

emphasis on product and process technology of
personal computers (PCs) has changed since
their introduction in the late 1970s. For the first
few years after their introduction the product
technologies of PCs were their main feature. The
fact t hat a product which was capable of being
so conveniently transported could also be so
technology. These early PCs were often
assembled using the most basic production
process technology
Apple Computer, for example, built its first

machines in a garage. That did not m a t t e r to
customers who were concerned more with what
their products could do. As the rate of change in
product technology slowed, a little mor e thought
was p u t into how PCs were t o be produced.
Increasing volumes m ade continued use of the
‘garage’ approach both infeasible and
further market success would depend on
investing in automated production technology.
Materials processing technologies
A small n um ber of materials processing

technologies are described in the chapter. These
are,
Computer numerically controlled machine tools

(CNC).
Robotics
Automated guided vehicles (AGVs)
Flexible manufacturing systems (FMS)
From this list it mi g h t seem as though all materials
processing technologies are manufacturing
technologies. However this is not the case. For
example, Table 8.1 includes the integrated mail
processing machines used b y national mail collection
and delivery systems as a material processing
technology. It does not physically change the
material, b u t it does sort it b y its destination.
Similarly, the conveyor belt sushi bar a t Yo, Sushi
processes material in so mu c h as it moves the
various dishes around customers who can then
choose which i te m they want. Even trucks or cargo
ships could be considered materials processing
technologies. Again, they m a y not physically change
the material b u t they do change it sMSlEo6c0 0aTteicoh nno l.o g y a n d
Development
Comparisons of advanced manufacturing
technologies
The progression f r o m conventional machine

tools to FMS involves a gradual replacement of
manual operations with automated operations.
The figure above characterizes t h e relationship
between the degree of possible automation and
some of the technologies. Note how the steps at
the core of the process, involving the shaping or
cutting activities are the first t o be automated,
either end of the whole process are gradually
included within the capabilities MoSfE 6t0h0 Tee c h n o l o g y a n d
Development
Information processing technologies
A n umb er of information processing

technologies are described in the chapter. The
most significant ones are often at the interface
of conventional information technology (IT) and
telecommunications. Undoubtedly we are in a
period of rapid change in this particular kind of
technology. So an understanding of some of the
basics of IT and telecommunications
technologies is vital for operations managers.
has already been very significant.
MSE 6 0 0 Technology and Development
Information processing technologies
The relative costs of different technologies in retail banking, is

worth thinking about. One should not infer t hat all banking will
be internet-based banking in the future. Certainly there are
significant advantages both f rom banks’ and customers’ point of
view of using the internet t o manage transactions. However,
there will always be customers and always certain types of
transaction which the other ‘technologies’ m a y be better at.
There is also some evidence that some retail banks in Europe or
US closed old fashioned bank branches too quickly, failed to
persuade all their customers t o use telephone and internet
communication, and lost market share as a result. Remember
that because a new technology makes something feasible it does
An office in t h e sky
As the technologies of data processing and

telecommunications are merging, so too are the
services which they support coming together. The
individual television screens, now c o mm o n in
aircraft, provide the entertainment which keeps
pBarist isehnAg eirwsahyasphpaysognonl oen goni net sterenpat
fiuornt ahlefrl i ginhbt sr .inNgoinwg together entertainment

technology with information provision and
processing. Using a hand-held control device,
service, computer games and a menu of information-
processing options.
An office in t h e sky
For example, a customer who wants to book a

hotel room, reserve a hire car, order flower
deliveries or buy duty-free goods, can do so via
the screen and control device. Payment for the
services or goods ordered is made by swiping a
credit card through a slot built into the seat’s
armrest. Confirmation of the transactions are
shown on the screen. The system can also
transmit a passenger’s own data. A notebook
faxed hardcan
computer copy
beof the information
plugged sent back
into the system andtoa
the office.
Behind the new service is a communications system
which includes the Inmarsat satellite and BA’s
central booking database in London. The database
directs credit card details to the card company and,
on authorization, transmits the customer’s orders
and reservations to the respective companies. The
airline views such technology as important in its
efforts to provide a superior service.

‘The concept is based on providing customers with a
total media centre from their seats. We have the
opportunity to provide customers with a whole range
choose
of products
whatand
they
services
want towhere
do rather
they than
will bebe able
fed with
to
entertainment.’ MSE 600 Technology and Development
Customer processing technologies
Unlike materials and information processing

technology, there is no universally accepted
categorization for customer processing technologies.
(This is why the typology used in the third edition is
slightly different to the one we used in the second
ecudsi tiomn e–rthpirnogcseshsainveg
mteochvnologde ni)e. sNaerve
rbtehceolemssing increasingly important. They do

technologies require the customer to operate the
technology. Customers unfortunately are not always
skilled in doing this. Thus the naturMeSE o60f0
tTehchenoclougysatnod Dmeveelorpment
For example, a European retail bank was

concerned that its customers were getting
frustrated when using its automatic telling
machines (ATMs). The ATMs took the customer
through a whole series of decisions, offering
services, asking whether a receipt was
necessary and so on. This process enabled
customers to partake of a wide range of services
but was lengthy. Customers who only wanted to
get money
series quickly still had to work through a
of questions.
AtoftseirmtpelsiftyintghecuAsTtoMmqeursesrteioan
c stioin so,rdtherytodespcieded up the process.

While this may have satisfied some customers,
it also upset others. The ones who were upset
at the reduction in service
complained more vocally than those who were
(presumably) pleased that the transaction was
service,
richer theyofhad
level come
service to expect
which the
the old longer but
system
offered. Customers had becomeMStEr6a00inTeechdno.logy and
Development
P r o d u c t Te c h n o l o g y
Tprohedreucatrtechdifnfeorleongty,viaeswis
aubnoduetrsthaendebafinleitsioincoef for many

years process engineering studied the
processes to produce products.
Cussler and Moggridge (2001) pointed out that

there are four steps in chemical product design:
reflect the show
The ideas increasing importanceofofcreativity
the importance the market. and
imagination.
The selection represents the essential

structuring of the development process. The
manufacture is related to classical process
dmeins igmni,zbinugt
pwriothduacntiimonpcorstasnitsdnifofteraen
icme:portant drive, but flexibility and time to
Cussler and Wei (2003) restated this, remarking that

both in research and teaching major changes will take
place. In our view product technology comprises more
than chemical product design. A possible definition is
p r o d u c t t e c h n o l o g y is the science and art of
developing and producing performance products to
meet the demands and requirements of society and
achieves this by adding value to materials by improving
existing and designing new products. When this
definition is accepted, it becomes understandable that
pnpreowducchtetmeichanl
oplrogdyuicstsn,obt ulitmthitaetdftoodth, ebidoe-mv
eldopicmale, nt of specialist mechanical products and

eMSvEe6n00 cTeechrntoaloigny and Development
software belong to product technology.
Maraerktheet, kimeyagele atioemni
ntsaindthsterusctetuprsered iqnuniorevda tion

develop new products.
The difference between product technology and
process technology is that the latter focuses on
a limited part of the total production chain, but
this difference is more than a ‘nuance’, a small
total chain.
Pder omdauncdt aenndgti hnee earsisnogciathteuds
liongcliustdices. sPurpimplayrialynd looking at the

process production steps is not sufficient any
more. This approach does not reduce the
importance of process technology, but
underlines it. Consumer wishes, quality
demands and legislation lead to more complex
P r o d u c t t e c h n o l o g y can be subdivided
according to the science that plays the major
role in the product design.
A useful classification is:
· chemical/biochemical;
· food;
· pharmaceutical;
· physical–mechanical (also called discrete or
fine mechanical);
· biomedical;
· software.
Market orientation
P r o d u c t d e s i g n a n d d e v e l o p m e n t is strongly
market oriented and the relation to the market is
usually much more direct and intensive than with
specification or bulk products. In the latter the off-
take is of course the capacity-determining factor, but
only with respect to the volume of production. The
specification of the product, for example gasoline is
not or only to a small extent influenced by the buyer.
Performance products usually have a much shorter
lifetime than specification products. The latter are
sometimes the feedstock for derived products. The
intensive relation between product design and the
consumer is quite apparent from thMSeE
e x a mhnoplolgeysangd Diveveelnopment
6 00 T ec
Food products
Tinhterpdrisocdiupclitnatercyhanodlolgoyokpinrig
ncaipt ltehse of verall production chain and

not only at the process, have been applied in
food science for some time. Many food-
oriented universities possess product-oriented
departments, such as meat sciences, dairy
sciences and cereal sciences.
Food products
Anuftoroitdiopnraol dvuaclut
eshaonudldthneotriognhltyshtrauvcetutrhe, rbiguht
tit should also be safe from a microbial point of
view. As a result of this, food product technology
has always recognized the role of other
disciplines. Food products comprise bulk
products such as milk and yoghurt. Here the
economics by investment and operating cost
reduction by larger scale production,
standardization and a shift to chMSeEa60p0
eTerchnology and Development
Food products
Fstoronga dasuirpyplyrodruivcet sfruocmh
athsemfailkrmthersre, ai s ami l k deteriorates

rapidly. On the other hand, when comparing
food products in the supermarket of 10 years
ago and nowadays, the difference is impressive.
The number and variety of products have
increased considerably, while the life cycle of
products.
Food products
Iptriosdeuxctrethmaet ltyhiemrpeoqrutiarnetmfeonr
tsheofscuocncseusms oefrsthaere met. Yet what

does the customer want? The food consumers
make their
decisions based on a mix of rational and
emotional considerations that they themselves
only partly realize. Thus for food products the
requirements
the consumer of
is of pivotal importance in food
product technology.
References
Albrecht, R., "Next Generation Software Techniques", in:
SPIE Proceedings "Instrumentation in Astronomy VI", Vol.
627, pg. 225, Tucson, 1986.
Barbour, Ian G. Ethics in an Age of Technology. San

Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1993.
Burke, James . Connections. Boston: Little, Brown, and

Co., 1985.
Burke, James . The Day the Universe Changed. Boston:

Little, Brown, and Co., 1985.
References
Covault, C., "Rogers Commission Report on Shuttle 51-L
Loss" Aviation Week and Space Technology 09-06-86, pg
16.
Livingston, J.A., "One Cosmic Instant", Dell Publ. NY,

1974, pg 63.
Pfund, B., "High-G Maneuvers", Aviation Week and Space

Technology, 02-Sep-85, pg. 98.
Popper, K.R., Lorenz, K., "Die Zukunft ist offen", (F.
Kreuzer, Ed.), Serie Piper Munchen 1985
SPuimbloicnast,ioGn.Ls.,
E"nEgxlpaeR.,
Walgate, nrd"In
t , S1y9s8te
Vitro 5m. s and Micros",
Fertilization", NCC
Nature Vol.232, 10-
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MSE 600

Oft en, t h e m o r e fre que ntly t h e wo rd is

O n e s u c h po pul ar word freely b a n d i e d a b o u t a n d

v“ teer yc hmnuocl ogh iny-”v. og ue j a rgo n now-a-d a y s is

T h e historical de r i vati o n of the t e r m te c h n o l o g y

T h e porti on of the w o rd ology i nd icate s

H o w e v e r, t h i s defi niti on i s too g e n e r a l in

t h e b ra n c h of k n o w l e d g e that d e a l s with the

of their civilizati on.

B y our v e r y defi niti on, t e c h n o l o g y m a n i p u l at e s

O r is it to h a v e g re a te r sati sfacti on in life?

We c a n disti ll all t h e s e va r i o u s a s p e c t s into a

TECHNOLOGY and the VALUE OF H U M A N LIFE

In t h e c o ntex t of this defi niti on, t h e ulti mate

H UM AN NEEDS and VALUES

tDhief frei cbuyl te njohba sn c(itnhget

Informati on Te c h n o l o g y (IT) c a t e rs to two u n i q u e

Cognitive Needs – w h i c h refer to t h e h u m a n

Affective Needs – w h i c h refer to t h e e m oti ona l

at encahl ynzoilno gyth. e( 1ismt

et hs i an khi nargmaonndi oeums pbal et hnidc

“The wa y to solve the conflict between human

t r ahenhs cuemnadns sbpoitrhit” i.nto a new kind of

EVOLUTION & GROWTH

Ei mffpe ac ti rserda ne yge sfirgohmt

IcIteirst ai mi npboortuanndtatroy nc otned ti thi oa nt sabi ni l igtieenseer va ol

EVOLUTION & GROWTH

vwoel uot ibosnearrvye nai cshhei f ot ffrom c o m m o n go als (at t he

witheh noumt otesct honf oulogs ciocualldhne olpt

pv aral ugem, ai stiac mat etictuhda en i s mof

EVOLUTION & GROWTH

Tc ohne qeuveorl vs epda cme oi st i vbatsi iocna lwl yhti hc he

sc a musee sonmeawn khiinc dh tcoa u s e d early m a n to explore

There is, however, o n e major difference b e t w e e n s p a ce

EVOLUTION & GROWTH

EVOLUTION & GROWTH

EVOLUTION & GROWTH

Mu ch has been written about the staggering

EVOLUTION & GROWTH

This situation is about to c h a n g e dramatically. A lre a dy in

EVOLUTION & GROWTH

Athl oenagdwvei tnht

tohfensewS /hWarddewvaerleo pwmh eicnht swwillepwroi lvl

isdeee revolutionary man-machine interfaces,

EVOLUTION & GROWTH

E v e n v e ry careful extrapolation s h o w s that w e a re right

Thus, computers, through AI s ys te ms , will help us to

EVOLUTION & GROWTH

Evolution's answer to drastic changes of the

EVOLUTION & GROWTH

aoduvpa(nctla gn,e twribi teh,i npea ospolec i)ahl l yas

EVOLUTION & GROWTH

As we do now, people will continue the naive use of

EVOLUTION & GROWTH

One problem in this extrapolation is that evolutionary

EVOLUTION & GROWTH OF

EVOLUTION & GROWTH

Lweithuosuat sthsuemneetdhato wcoe mevpoeltve

fotorwreasrodus raceso,cinetwy hich therefore the

EVOLUTION & GROWTH

EVOLUTION & GROWTH

Ex t r a pOo l aFt i oTn sECHNOLOGY

There can be no definite conclusions from these