Design of Steel Elements

D29SE

Lecture 3
Design of Tension Members
Learning Objectives
• Introduce to structural steel, grades of steel and their
mechanical properties
• Understand behaviour and design consideration of tension
members
• Introduce the design verification process for axially loaded
tension members according to Eurocode 3
• Complete design examples on axially loaded tension members
Introduction…what is structural steel?
• Steel is man made metal containing 95% or more iron. The
remaining constituents are small amounts of elements derived
from raw materials and also elements added to improve certain
properties. Carbon 1-2%,smaller amounts of manganese, nickel
etc. Carbon improves strength but reduces ductility.

• Structural steel is steel available in various shapes and forms

utilised to support loads and resist the various forces to which a
structure is subjected.
Example of Steel Framed Building
Example of Steel Framed Building
Example of Steel Framed Building
Example of Steel Truss Structures
Example of Steel Truss Structures
Example of Steel Truss Bridge 
Advantages of Steel
• High strength to low weight - good for long span bridges, tall
buildings
• Uniformity - properties do not change with time unlike concrete
• Elasticity – behaves closer to design assumptions than most
materials – follows Hooke’s law to fairly high stress
• Ductility – withstand extensive deformation without failure under high
tensile stress – free from sudden failure
• Additions to existing structures
• Time saving
• Flexibility in fabrication
• Reuse on demolition
Disadvantages of Steel
• High maintenance cost – corrosion – requires periodic
treatment.
• Fire proofing – strength tremendously reduced at high
temperature – additional high cost of fire proofing.
• Susceptibility to buckling for long slender members.
• Fatigue – strength reduced if large number of stress reversals.
Grade of Steel and Design Strength
Grade of Steel and Design Strength
Material Properties of Steel
The important characteristics of steel for design purposes
are:
• Yield strength, fy
• Ultimate tensile strength, fu
• Modulus of elasticity, E = 210,000 MPa
• Poisson’s ratio,  = 0.3
• Shear modulus, G = E/2(1 + ) = 80,770 MPa
• Density,  = 7850 kg/m3
• Coefficient of linear thermal expansion,  = 12 x 106 per oC

14
Conventions for Member Axes
Dimensions and Axes of Sections
Dimensions and Axes of Sections
Partial Factor M
• The partial factors M should be applied to characteristic values
of resistance to obtain design resistances

• The factor M assumes different values depending on the type of

resistance being verified.
Types of Resistance (EC 3: Clause 6.1) Factor
Resistance of cross-sections (whatever the class) M0 = 1.00
Resistance of members to instability M1 = 1.00
Resistance of cross-section in tension to fracture M2 = 1.25
Resistance of joint See EN 1993-1-8
Tension Members – Types and Uses
• A tension member transmits a direct axial pull between two
points in a structural frame.

• In building structures, some of the common tension members

are:
– Tension chords and internal ties in trusses
– Tension wind bracing members
– Hangers supporting floor beams
Tension Members – Roof Truss

Ties

Tension chord
ROOF TRUSS
Tension Members – Lattice Girder

Ties

LATTICE GIRDER
Tension Members – Multi-Storey Building

Ties (K-Bracing)

MULTI-STOREY BUILDING
Tension Members – Hanger Structures
Ties

Hangers
Floor beams

HANGERS SUPPORTING FLOOR BEAMS

Behaviour of Tension Members
• Theoretically, tension members is the most simplest and efficient
structural element.
• When under axial tension action, the section is uniformly
stressed.
• This stress can be increased till the whole section reaches
ultimate stress and fails in ductile mode.
Behaviour of Tension Members
• The efficiency of tension members are affected by the following
factors:
– End connections: bolt holes reduce member section.

– Reversal of load causes buckling: tension member is more

slender than a compression member, so larger section has to
be provided.

– Many tension members must also resist moment due to

eccentricity of end connections as well as axial load.
End Connection
• Types of end connections for tension members are:
– Bolted or threaded connections
The strength is determined by the tensile area at the threads.

– Single angle connected through one leg

The outstanding leg is not fully effective, and if bolts are used
the connected leg is also weakened by the bolt hole.

– Full strength joints made by welding

Example…lattice girder made from hollow sections.
For ease of erection, most site joints are bolted, and welding
is confined to shop joints.
Design Consideration
• Tension capacity of a member is influenced by:

– Effect of holes….Anet

– Eccentricity of connection
Design of Tension Members Under
Concentrically Loaded
• According to EC 3: Cl 6.2.3, the design value of the tension
force NEd at each cross section should satisfy the following
condition: N Ed
 1.0
N t , Rd

• For sections with holes, the design tension resistance Nt,Rd

should be taken as the smaller of: Af y
– Design plastic (yield) resistance N pl , Rd 
M0
of the cross-section
0.9 Anet f u
N u , Rd 
– Design ultimate (fracture) resistance M2
of the cross section 28
Design of Tension Members Under
Concentrically Loaded
Af y 0.9 Anet f u
N pl , Rd  N u , Rd 
M0 M2
• where:
A = Gross area of the cross section
fy = Yield strength
M0 = Partial safety factor for resistance of cross section, 1.0
Anet = Net area of the cross section
fu = Ultimate strength
M2 = Partial safety factor for resistance of cross section in
tension to fracture, 1.10
Net Area of the Cross Section (Anet)
• To calculate the tension capacity of the members, knowing how
to evaluate net areas Anet are vital.
• Reduction in the cross sectional area have to be made due to
bolt holes.
• Clear hole size is deducted.
• Take for instance, a 20mm dia. bolt requires 22 dia. holes, so
deduction is area corresponding to 22 mm dia.
• The holes can have different arrangements – the strength
depends on the hole arrangement
– Case 1: Holes are not staggered
– Case 2: Holes are staggered
Holes Are Not Staggered
• Net area of a cross-section = gross area – hole areas
• Area to be deducted is the sum of the cross-sectional areas of
the holes in a cross-section perpendicular to the direction of the
axial force.

Anet  A   d 0t
• where
d0 = Diameter of a hole
t = Thickness of the member
Holes Are Not Staggered

t
Diameter of a hole = d0

• Anet = A – (2 x d0 x t)
• Anet = bt – (2d0t)
Holes Are Staggered

• where:
p = Gauge spacing perpendicular to the direction of the
tensile force
s = Staggered pitch
• It is necessary to consider all possible failure paths extending
progressively through the members.
Holes Are Staggered
• First, consider the different ways a tension member with
staggered holes can fracture.

• The following diagrams show the different lines of failure.

• When analyzing a member like this, it is important to find all the

lines of failure and then determine which line of failure is the
weakest cross section.

• That cross section will be taken as the net width.

Holes Are Staggered: Case 1

d0

d0

• Area to be deducted = 2(d0t)

Holes Are Staggered: Case 2
s

d0
p

d0

t
2
• Area to be deducted = 3d 0t  t
s
4p
Holes Are Staggered: Case 3
s

d0
p

d0

t
2
• Area to be deducted = 4d 0t  ns t where:
4p n = number of slant failure lines

• Find the maximum area to be deducted from above three

cases. This will produce the minimum net area and therefore the
critical section.
Holes Are Staggered: Example 1
• Determine the gross cross sectional area, net cross sectional
area and effective net cross sectional area.
80 mm 55 mm 80 mm 55 mm

40 mm
180 mm wide x
10 mm thick plate
50 mm
Bolt size is 16 mm dia.
40 mm
Design of Tension Members: Example 2
• Determine the tension capacity of plate. Plate thickness = 8 mm
and 20 mm diameter bolts are used.

50 mm
160 mm
50 mm

50 mm 50 mm 50 mm 50 mm
Design of Eccentrically Connected Tension
Members
• It is common for fabrication of tension members to be connected
eccentric to their axes.

• The effect of eccentric connections induce bending moments in

the member and will reduce their efficiency.
Design of Eccentrically Connected Tension
Members
• The design of the eccentrically connected member follows the
same approach as with concentrically connected.

• Except that…with reduced effective area Anet,eff to take into

account not all of the section is effectively carry the load.

• Note that the term Anet,eff is being used to replace “0.9Anet” in Nu,Rd
equation.
0.9 Anet f u
N u , Rd 
M2
Design of Eccentrically Connected Tension
Members
• For an equal angle in tension connected by a single row of bolts
in one leg, the effective net area Anet,eff:
Anet ,eff  2e2  0.5d 0 t

• For a two bolt connection, equal angle:

Anet ,eff  0.4 Anet for bolt spacing p1  2.5d 0
 0.7 Anet for bolt spacing p1  5d 0

• For a three or more bolt connection, equal angle:

Anet ,eff  0.5 Anet for bolt spacing p1  2.5d 0
 0.7 Anet for bolt spacing p1  5d 0
Design of Eccentrically Connected Tension
Members
• For an unequal angle connected by its smaller leg, Anet is taken
as the net section of an equivalent equal angle of leg length
equal the smaller leg.
• For an unequal angle connected by its larger leg, A net may be
taken as equal to the gross area A.

• For welded connection on equal angle, or unequal angle

connected by its larger leg, Anet may be taken as equal to the
gross area A.
0.9 Af u
N t , Rd  N u , Rd 
M2
Design of Tension Members: Example 3
• Determine the tension capacity of the angle section shown. It is
connected on the longer leg with a single bolt connection.

75 x 50 x 8 angle
16 mm bolts are used.
Design of Tension Members: Example 4
• Determine the tension capacity of the angle section shown. But
this time, it is connected on the longer leg by welding.

75 x 50 x 8 angle
Design of Tension Members: Example 5
• An internal member of a truss system is subject to a tensile
force of 260 kN from truss analysis. Design a suitable cross
section for the internal member if:
1) End connections are welded
2) End connections are bolted with two in line 20 mm dia. bolts

260kN