Fundamentals of Surveying

( SURT 2022)
PREPARED BY:
MOHAMMEDSUALIH
April 2022
 Course contents
1. Basic Concepts in Surveying
2. linear measurements in surveying
3. Leveling
4. Measurement of angles
5. Coordinate System
6. Traversing
 Chapter One
Basic Concepts in
Surveying
 Chapter One
1.1 Basic Definitions and Importance
1.Basic Concepts in Surveying of Surveying
1.2 Classifications of surveying
1.3 Basic Measurements in Surveying
1.4 Units of measurement
1.5 Scale
1.6 Accuracy precision and error
 

1.Basic Concepts in Surveying

1.1 Basic Definitions of terms
Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative
position of various points above, on or below the surface of the
earth.
The relative positions are determined by measuring horizontal
distance, vertical distances (elevations), horizontal angles and
vertical angles accurately using various surveying instruments.
After taking the measurements in the field, computations are
done and the plans and maps are prepared in the office.
 These plans and maps are used for planning of engineering
works, making of boundaries, computations of areas and
volumes, and various purposes.
Surveying also includes the art of setting out or
locating points on the ground from the plan or map.
The first stage in all big projects is to survey the
area and to prepare plans.
 These plans are used in the preparation of the
detailed drawing, design and estimate of the project.
After finalizing the drawings, setting out is done by
establishing the various points and lines on the
ground from the drawing.
Surveying, although simple in concept, requires great skill
and practice for doing the work accurately and
economically.
It requires basic knowledge of various disciplines such as
mathematics, physics, geodesy and astronomy. The need for
accurate surveying is increasing rapidly with the
development in technology.
The construction of modern buildings, highways, railways,
high dams, long bridges, and tunnels requires accurate
surveying.
As the cost of the land and property is increasing rapidly,
high accuracy is required in making the boundaries and the
land subdivision.
 Processes of Surveying
surveying process starts with the reconnaissance survey
establish the best sites for survey stations
Collect the necessary data (details)
 produce plans used for planning Engineering projects,
marking boundary corners or lines, computations of areas
& volumes
After finalizing the design or detail drawing, setting out
will be done.
Importance of Surveying
Surveying plays an essential role in the planning, design,
layout and construction of any physical environment and
infrastructure.
Roads, Bridges, Buildings, water supply sewerage,
drainage systems and many other essential public works,
projects could never be built without surveying
technology.
 Surveying is generally essential in several sectors, such as:-
Land-use projects
Mapping
Urban/City surveys
Route surveying
Hydrographic surveying
Military science
In agriculture:
 Computation of farm area

 Volume of water reservoirs

 Locating soil conservation works
 Applying Chemicals for farm lands

 Land grading….
 1.2 classifications of surveying A)Primary/ General divisions of
surveying
Primary divisions of surveying are made on
the basis whether the curvature of the earth is
considered or whether the earth is assumed to
be a flat plane.
 Surveying is thus primarily divided in two
types:
Plane surveying
Geodetic surveying
 1. Plane surveying: It is the type of surveying in which the
curvature of the earth is neglected and it is assumed to be a
flat surface.
 All distances and horizontal angles are assumed to be
projected on to a horizontal plane. A horizontal plane at a
point is the plane, which is perpendicular to the vertical
line at that point.
2. Geodetic surveying: It is the type of surveying in which
the curvature of the earth is taken in to consideration, and a
very high standard of accuracy is maintained. The main
object of geodetic surveying is to determine the precise
location of a system of widely spaced points on the surface
of the earth.
In geodetic surveying, the earth’s major and minor axes are
computed accurately. The earth’s mean-sea-level surface,
which is perpendicular to the direction of gravity at every
point, is representd by a geoid.

a c tu a l e a rth s u rfa c e

g e o id
sea
d ire c tio n o f g ra v ity
e llip s o id
 B) Functional Classification of Surveying
 Property/land/boundary/cadastral surveying : performed in order
to establish the positions of boundary lines and property corners.
 Control surveying: establishing H&V control points
 Topographic surveying: relative positions (horizontal and
vertical) of features(natural and man-made).
 City surveys: These surveys are conducted within the limits of a
city for urban planning. These are required for the purpose of
layout of streets, buildings, sewers, pips, etc.
 Route surveying: to lay out the positions of highways, rail ways,
streets, pipelines or any other ‘’linear’’ project
 Cont….
 Mine surveying-positions and elevations of Mines, shafts, bore
holes etc for underground works.
 Construction (engineering) surveying: layout or location survey
 Hydrographic surveying : conducted on or near the body of
water,
 Geological :to obtain information about different strata of the
earth’s surface for geological studies
 Military: for military purpose
 Astronomic surveys: conducted for the determination of
latitudes, Azimuths, local time etc. for various places on the earth
by observing heavenly bodies (the sun or stars).
 Satellite surveys : to obtain intercontinental, interdatum and
interisland geodetic ties the entire world over by artificial earth’s
satellites
C) Classification of Surveying based on
Instruments used
 Chain surveying: uses chain or tape to measure linear
measurements
 Compass surveying : angles are measured with the help of a
magnetic compass in addition to chain…
 Leveling:
 Theodolite survey:
 Tachometric Surveying
 Plane table
 Photogrammetric
 EDM surveying
 Total station
 GPS
D) Classification of Surveying Based on Nature of the Field
Surveying is classified in to three parts according to their field
Land Surveying-eg
* Topographical Surveying: -
* Cadastral Surveying:
* City Surveying: -
Hydrographic Surveys: - This survey deals with the
surveying of mapping of large water bodies for the purpose of
navigation and construction of harbor works etc.
Astronomical Surveys:-These Survey which are carried out
for determining the absolute location i.e. latitude of different
place on the earth surface and direction of line on the surface
of the earth by making observation to heavenly bodies i.e.
stars & Sun.
1.3. Basic Measurements in Surveying

Horizontal distance
Vertical Distance
Horizontal Angles and
Vertical Angles.
Horizontal distance: A horizontal distance is
measured in a horizontal plane. If a distance is
measured along a slope, it is reduced to its horizontal
equivalent.
 Vertical distances: A vertical distance is measured
along the direction of gravity at that point. The vertical
distances are measured to determine the difference in
elevations (height) of the various points.
Horizontal angle: A horizontal angle is measured
between two lines in a plane that is horizontal at that
point.
Vertical angle: Vertical angle is measured between two
lines in a plane that is vertical at a point.
 Vertical Distance
DH

horizontal distance = h

Horizontal & vertical Horizontal & vertical

Distance angle

Fig. Basic Measurements in Surveying

 1.4 Units of measurement

There are two main systems of measurements:

1) Metric system M.K.S. (meter, kilogram, second)
(SI=Système International)
2) British systemF.P.S. (foot, pound, second)

a) The SI unit of length is the base unit meter (m).

1 decameter = 101m = 1 dam
1 hectometer = 102m = 1 hm
1 kilometer = 103m = 1 km
1 megameter = 106m = 1 Mm
1 gigameter = 109m = 1 Gm
1 terameter = 1012m = 1 Tm
1 decimeter = 10-1m = 1 dm
1 centimeter = 10-2m = 1 cm
1 millimeter = 10-3m = 1 mm
1 micrometer = 10-6m = 1 µm
1 nanometer = 10-9m = 1 nm
1 picometer = 10-12m = 1 pm
b) The SI unit for area is the derived units square meter
(m2)
1 hectare = 104m2 = 100 m * 100m = 1 ha
1 square kilometer = 106m2 = 1000m * 1000m =
1km2 = 100ha

c) The SI unit for volume is the derived unit cubic

meter (m3)
1000 cu millimeters = 1 cubic centimeter
1000 cu centimeters = 1 cubic decimeter
1000 cu decimeters = 1 cubic meter
d) The SI units for plane angles
There are three systems in use for angular
unit, namely
Radian(rad).
sexagesimal graduation, and
centesimal graduation
radian: In a unit circle with the radius 1 the full
circle equals 2 rad.
lb =
1
=
1r
ad

r=1

C = 2
 Cont…
Sexagesimal graduation: The circle is divided into 360
parts.
1 full circle = 3600 (degrees)
10 = 1/360 full circle = 2/360 rad = /180 rad
10 = 60’ (minutes)
1’ = 60” (seconds)

Centesimal graduation: The circle is divided into 400 parts.

1 full circle = 400 gon
1 gon = 1/400 full circle = 2/400 rad = /200 rad
1 gon = 100 cgon (centigon)
1 cgon = 10 mgon (milligon)
1 mgon = 10 cc (centi centigon)
 Conversion of units
a) Conversion of length
1 inch = 2.54 cm
c) Conversion of
1 foot = 0.3048m
volume
1 mile = 1.6093 km
1 cu in = 16.387 cu cm
 
1 cu ft = 0.0283 c um
b) Conversion of area
 
1 sq in = 6.4516 sq cm
d) Conversion of
1sq ft = 0.0929 sq m
angles
1 sq mile = 2.59 sq km
1 gon = 9/10 deg
1 deg = 10/9 gon
Example:
1.Convert from gon to degree: 48.0488 gon
2. from degree decimal value to degree, minutes, seconds:
43.2439
Solution:
from gon to degree: 48.0488 gon
48.0488 gon * 9/10 = 43.2439
from degree to gon: 43.2439
43.2439 * 10/9 = 48.0488 gon

from degree decimal value to degree, minutes, seconds: 43.2439

43 + 0.2439
0.2439 * 60 = 14.6340’
0.6340’* 60 = 38”
result: 43 14’ 38”
from degree, minutes, seconds to degree decimal value: 43 14’ 38”

43 + 14’/60 + 38”/ 3600 = 43.2439

 1.5 Scale
Plans Vs Maps
Plan is the graphical representation, to some scale, of
the features on, near or below the surface of the earth as
projected on a horizontal plane.
The representation is called a map if the scale is small
while it is called a plan if the scale is large.
On a plan, generally only horizontal distances and
directions are shown.
On topographic map, however the vertical distances are
also represented by contour lines, hachure or other
systems.
Scale of a map
Scale of a map is the ratio of the distance marked on the map to the
corresponding distance on the ground.
A map is a scaled graphic representation of a portion of the earth's
surface. The scale of the map permits the user to convert distance on
the map to distance on the ground or vice versa.
Scales of a map are generally classified as large, medium and small.
A large scale map shows the features in a bigger size than a small
scale map.
A large scale map shows small area with more detail than a small scale
map.
Large denominator numbers refer to small scale, where as small
denominator numbers are indicative of a large scale.
Large scale: 1: 1000 or more, example 1:500
Medium scale: 1:1000 to 1:10,000, example 1: 5,000
Small Scale 1: 10000 or less, example 1:50,000
Representations of Scale
The following methods are used to represent a scale of a
map:
By statement (e.g.- engineer’s scale)
By representative fraction
By graphical Scale
1. By statement -
For example 1cm to 100 meters, that means 1 cm on
the map represents 100m on the ground.
2. By representative fraction (RF)-
 Scale= md/gd
Where:
md= map distance
gd= corresponding actual ground distance

E.g. 1:5000 or 1/5000, that means 1 cm on the map

represents 5000 cm (=50m) on the ground.
Note: The unit in the numerator and denominator must
be the same (scale is unit less).
3. By graphical Scale: A graphical Scale is a ruler printed on
the map so that its map distance corresponds to a
convenient unit of length on the ground and it is used to
convert distances on the map to actual ground distances. 

5km 3hm

10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
h e c to m e te r k ilo m e te r
Type of measuring scales
a. Plain Scale- represents either two units or only one unit
and its fraction. It consists of a line divided in to suitable
numbers of equal parts or units, the first of which is
subdivided in to smaller parts.

5km 3hm

10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
h e c to m e te r k ilo m e te r
b. Comparative scale- The scales having the common
representation fraction but graduated comparatively
to read different units called comparative scales, such
as the scales showing comparatively inches and
centimeters, miles and kilometers, degree and radians,
time and distance traveled, etc. The advantage is that
measurements are taken directly in the desired unit
with out any calculations.

c e n tim e te r

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0 1 2 3 4
in c h
c. Diagonal Scale - A diagonal scale represents either three
units or only one unit and its fraction up to second place
of decimal point. It consists of a line divided in to suitable
number of equal parts. The first part is subdivided into
suitable number of equal parts, each of which is further
divided into smallest parts by diagonals.

3 2 5 m

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 0 4 0 0
m e te rs m e te rs
d.Vernier Scale - A vernier scale is, an additional, scale
which allows a distance or angle measurement to be
read more precisely than directly reading a uniformly-
divided straight or circular measurement scale. It is a
sliding secondary scale that is used to indicate where
the measurement lies when it is in between two of the
marks on the main scale
1.6 accuracy precision and error
Thus a fundamental principle of surveying is that no
measurement is exact and the true value of the quantity being
measured is never known. (Exact or true values do exist, but
they can not be determined).
Necessity for Accurate Surveys
The surveyor must have the skill and judgment necessary to
make very accurate measurements.
This fact is obvious when one is thinking in terms of the
construction of long bridges tunnels. Tall buildings, and
missile sites or the setting of delicate machinery, but it can be
just as important in land surveying. A few decades ago land
princes were not extremely high except in and around the
largest cities. If the surveyor gained or lost a few feet in a lot
or a few acres in a farm, it was usually not considered to be a
matter of great importance.
Accuracy and Precision
The terms accuracy and precision are constantly used in
surveying, yet their correct meanings are a little difficult to
grasp. In an attempt to clarify the distinction, the following
definitions are presented:
Accuracy refers to the degree of perfection obtained in
measurements. It denotes how a given measurement is close
to the true value.

Precision or apparent accuracy is the closeness of one

measurement to mean value or the closeness of one
measurement to another.
If a quantity is measured several times and the values
obtained are very close to each other, the precision is said to
be high
Errors and Mistakes
Error- the difference between the true value or most probable value (MPV) and
measured value or actual value
Sources of Errors
There are three sources of errors; people, instrument and nature .Accordingly,
errors in measurement are generally said: personal, instrumental, and
natural, however, some errors do not clearly fit in to one of these categories
and may be due to a combination of factors.
1. Personal errors occur due to human limitations, such as sense of sight and
touch. For instance, in estimating the fractional part of a scale, the surveyor
can not read it perfectly and will always be either a little large or a little small.
2. Instrumental errors occur because instruments can not be manufactured
perfectly and the different parts of instruments can not be adjusted exactly
with respect to each other. Moreover, with time the wear and tear of the
instruments causes errors.
3. Natural errors are caused by changes in natural phenomena, such as
temperature, wind, humidity, refraction, and magnetic field. For example if
a tape has been calibrated at 20c, but the field temperature is 30 c there
will be a natural error due to temperature variation.
Types of Errors
In surveying, errors can be broadly classified into
the following three types.
Gross errors/ mistakes or blunders
E.g. writing 2.324m instead of 12.34 m
E.g. Reading 5.655 instead of 15.655
Systematic or cumulative errors
They can be calculated and so corrected
Accidental or random errors
caused by factors beyond the control of the
surveyor