Unit 8: Plant and Animal OrganSystems and Processes: Reproduction and

Lesson 8.1

Plant Reproductionand Development

Contents

Introduction 1

Learning Objectives 2

Warm Up 2

Learn about It! 4

Major Plant Groups 4
of Generations 5
6
Cycle
Cycle
Plants 8
in Angiosperms 10
Asexual Reproduction 10

Plant Development 12
Embryogenesis 13
Organogenesis

Key Points 17

Check YourUnderstanding 18

Challenge Yourself 20

Photo Credits 20

Bibliography 21
Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction

Lesson 8.1
Plant Reproduction and

  Introduction
The life of a  plant  begins when it emerges from a seed. The seed  can develop and  form
new plant individuals and can also begin to reproduce when they  reach  their sexual
maturity. This complex life cycle  of  plants involves several processes that are unique to the
members of the plant kingdom. How do you think most  plants  reproduce  and undergo a
series  of development   to  form fully mature   individuals? How is  it  different from the
animals? In this lesson,  you will revisit the life cycle of a  common   flowering  plant  and  see
how reproduction and development take place in these photosynthetic organisms.

8.1. Plant Reproduction and Development 1

Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction

Learning Objectives DepEd Competency

In this lesson, you should be able to do the

Compare and contrast reproduction
following: and developmental processes in
●  Describe the life cycle of plants. plants and animals

●  Discuss the processes involved in plant (STEM_BIO11/12 -IVa-h-1).

reproduction.
●  Describe the stages of plant
development.

  Warm Up
Plant Development Time Table   20 minutes
In this activity, you will try to make a time table  of the  selected stages of plant development
by using mongo seeds.

Materials  
●  camera (phone camera will suffice)
●  computer unit (with MS PowerPoint)
●  cotton
●  mongo ( Vigna radiata) seeds
●  small plastic tub or container
●  water

Procedure  
1. Form a group of five members.
2. Prior to the class (at least five days before), try  to germinate  some mongo  seeds in
moist cotton. Place them in a small plastic tub. You may keep these germinating
mongo seeds in an undisturbed area in your classroom.

8.1. Plant Reproduction and Development 2

Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction

3. By using Fig. 8.1.1 as your guide, try  to   document   each of the important
developmental stages of the mongo seeds. During   documentation, you have to use
your cameras to take photos of each stage.
4. Also, take note  of the   number of days for the  plant  to reach each stage in your
documentation.
5. Afterward, make a photo story in a PowerPoint presentation.
6. Present your output to the class. Compare your timeline of mongo seed
development with that of the other groups.
7. Answer the guide questions afterward.

Fig. 8.1.1. Developmental stages in plants

Guide Questions
1. Which part of the activity represents plant reproduction?
2. Which part of the activity represents plant development?
3. Have you observed a similar timeline for the development of the plants compared to
other groups? What can be the possible reason for your observations?
4. What do you think is the difference between reproduction and development?
5. What is the importance of these processes in sustaining the life cycle of plants?

8.1. Plant Reproduction and Development 3

Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction

  Learn about It!

Review of Major Plant Groups

Plants were proposed to have evolved from a single green algal ancestor .  Many of their
common   characteristics   include multicellularity , the capacity  for photosynthesis,  the
presence of cellulosic cell walls, and plastids in their cytoplasm. Also, they have a
common life cycle called the alternation of generations .  Plants  are  usually divided into
two major groups based on the presence of the lignified vascular tissues . 

Non-vascular plants, which  include the bryophytes, lack lignified conducting tissues. They
usually obtain water and nutrients from their environment through direct  absorption.  They
reproduce through spore formation  . Vascular plants, which possess  lignified vascular
tissues, include the pteridophytes and  spermatophytes .  These two  subgroups differ in
terms of reproduction. Pteridophytes (ferns) reproduce through spores, while
spermatophytes (gymnosperms and angiosperms) reproduce through seeds.

Table 8.1.1. Major groups of land plants

Bryophytes Pteridophytes Spermatophytes

Hornworts Ferns Gymnosperm

Liverworts Horsetails Angiosperms (Monocots)

8.1. Plant Reproduction and Development 4

Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction

Mosses Lycophytes Angiosperms (Dicots)

The Alternation of Generations

As mentioned earlier,  a common   pattern for the life cycle of land plants (and some algae) is
their alternation of generations ( Fig. 8.1.2.) ,  which  is also known  as metagenesis .  Two
distinct life stages are involved: the sporophyte and the  gametophyte stages. They differ in
terms of the number of chromosome sets that  they have. The sporophyte stage consists of
diploid cells, while the gametophyte stage consists of haploid cells. Also, the  sporophyte
stage  produces  haploid spores through meiosis, while the gametophyte stage produces
gametes through mitosis.

Fig. 8.1.2. Plants alternate between sporophyte and gametophyte stages.

8.1. Plant Reproduction and Development 5

Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction

How does the life cycle ofa plant begin?

Angiosperm Life Cycle

Most of what we see in angiosperms or flower-bearing plants —the  leaves, stems,  and
visible floral parts—are in the sporophyte stage. The gametophyte stage is found in the
pollens and ovules of the flower. Flowers (as shown in Fig. 8.1.3 )  are  the   primary
reproductive structures of angiosperms. Pollen grains  are produced by the male part of the
flower,  the stamen. Particularly, they are formed  in the anther , which  is held by  its stalk
called the filament .  The ovules are  housed by the female part of the flower, the pistil. The
stigma receives the pollen. The style leads to the ovary of the flower.  The other floral  parts,
particularly the petals and sepals,  are  accessory in nature  because they primarily help
attract pollinators.

Fig. 8.1.3. The different primary and accessory parts of the flower

The life cycle of an angiosperm, as shown   in  Fig. 8.1.4, usually starts with the seed .  It 
contains the embryo, the first sporophyte stage,  that   will develop and   produce new

8.1. Plant Reproduction and Development 6

Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction

generations.  After germination , where the seed imbibes (or  absorbs) water for  activation,
it develops and forms a seedling .  After some time,  the  seedling will reach the adult
sporophyte stage, which will produce blooming flowers. In the  case  of  the   apple plant
below, the mature sporophyte will be in the  form of a  tree. The flowers, being the  major
reproductive organs of angiosperms, contain pollen grains  in  their   stamens and ovules in
the pistil .  These structures are  needed during fertilization. Fertilization happens  once  the
gametes in the pollen grains reach the  ovary  of the flower  in a process called pollination . 
This is usually mediated by a pollinator like a bee. The fertilized ovules  then develop to
form seeds, and the ovary becomes the fruit. These seeds  must  be  dispersed  to  produce
new mature individuals.

Fig. 8.1.4. The generalized life cycle of an angiosperm plant. Angiosperms are named so
because their seeds are enclosed or kept in structures called fruits (i.e., angeion=case,
vessel; sperma=seeds).

Gymnosperm Life Cycle

Gymnosperms, such as pine trees, also produce seeds like the angiosperms do. However,
they do not bear flowers that form fruits and contain the seeds after pollination. Rather, as
the name gymnosperm implies (i.e., gymnos=naked; sperma=seeds), they  contain  seeds  in

8.1. Plant Reproduction and Development 7

Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction

structures called cones. The general pattern is similar to the  angiosperms (as shown  in Fig.
8.1.5 below). The seeds in the cones contain the embryo, which  marks the first sporophyte
stage .  The seed, after germination, then develops into  a  sexually   mature plant. Similar to
some   flowering   plants, there are separate male   and female cones .  The male cones
contain the male gametophytes in the form of pollen grains .  The  larger female cones
contain the female gametophytes in the form  of the ovules .  Pollination takes place
between these two  cones, which  eventually  produce the   fertilized  ovules in the form of
seeds. Since no distinct  flower is present, the seeds are not  contained  in fruits,  but rather in
the female cones only . 

Fig. 8.1.5. The generalized life cycle of a gymnosperm plant

Life Cycle of Lower Plants

In lower plants, such as bryophytes   and ferns, embryos  are  not  contained in seeds.  
Rather, they directly  release their  haploid spores into their surroundings to  develop
into a gametophyte .  A  generalized fern life cycle is  shown in Fig. 8.1.6. below. The mature
sporophyte, which is primarily in the form of leaf-like structures in ferns called fronds,
contains the sporangium (plural, sporangia).  These sporangia produce  the  haploid spores

8.1. Plant Reproduction and Development 8

Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction

through the meiotic division .  The spores then develop into the heart-shaped
gametophytes .  These gametophytes are capable of producing   both sperm and  egg cells.
Note that simple fertilization takes place, which does not involve pollination .  The resulting
diploid zygote then develops into a young sporophyte as it lands into a substrate.

Fig. 8.1.6. The generalized life cycle of a fern plant

Some of the reproductively important structures in ferns are shown in Fig. 8.1.7..

Fig. 8.1.7. Fern generations (Left: the underside of the diploid fronds in ferns containing the
sporangia; Right: the haploid heart-shaped gametophyte of ferns)

8.1. Plant Reproduction and Development 9

Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction

Table 8.1.2. Comparison of the reproductive structures and processes in plants

Structures and Pteridophytes and

Angiosperm Gymnosperm

Floral Structures Present Absent Absent

Cones Absent Present Absent

Primary Dispersal
Seeds Seeds Spores

Pollination Present Present Absent

Fruit Formation Present Present Absent

Some sporophyte,
Dominant Stage Sporophyte Sporophyte

Forms of Reproduction in Angiosperms

Many aspects of plant reproduction   have already been  discussed earlier. Angiosperms  are
among the most advanced plant groups .  During   their reproduction, the existing
sporophyte individuals reach sexual maturity  and produce new  individuals. Similar to other
organisms, angiosperms can perform asexual and sexual  modes of reproduction , the
latter of which was discussed in the alternation of generations earlier.

Asexual Reproduction
In plants, asexual reproduction occurs when offspring   emerge from a single parent.
Usually, the offspring are genetically identical to the parent plant due to the absence of the
recombination of genetic material that should have happened during  fertilization.  There are
two types of asexual reproduction in plants, as shown in Fig. 8.1.8. . 
1. Apomixis is  a type of asexual reproduction in plants where seeds  are produced
without meiosis and fertilization  . In  this process,  the unfertilized eggs  in ovules
produce embryos .  For example, dandelions have genes in them that can trigger  the
development of seeds from ovules without pollination. Thus,  the embryo  in each of
the seeds is genetically identical to the parent dandelion.

8.1. Plant Reproduction and Development 10

Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction

2. Vegetative propagation is a form   of asexual reproduction where   plant parts

produce buds that develop into  new individuals .  Vegetative propagation allows
fragmentation of plant parts followed by regeneration , where the  development of
new individuals proceeds. An example includes the stolons or runners of
strawberries that form buds leading to the generation of new individuals.

Fig. 8.1.8. Angiosperms can reproduce asexually through apomixis or vegetative

propagation. Apomixis in dandelions forms seeds without performing meiotic division or
fertilization. Vegetative propagation in the stolons of strawberries can form clones.

Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction in flowering  plants,  as  discussed earlier, starts  in flowers. Flowers are
the reproductive organs in  angiosperms that possess  the stamens (male structures)  and
pistils (female structures) .  Collectively, these male and   female structures are called
androecium and gynoecium, respectively.

During pollination , pollen grains from the anther  of the stamen  must reach the female
stigma. Usually, the pollen grains  are being   transported by agents or pollinators, which can
be the air, insects, other animals, or even humans. Once the pollen grains successfully land
on the stigma, the fertilization process will begin. During   fertilization (as shown  in Fig.
8.1.9. below), the pollen grain containing the sperm nuclei  forms the  pollen  tube  or tube
nucleus . This extends down  to the neck of the style until  it  reaches the  egg  nucleus in the
ovules (or embryo sac) of the ovary.

8.1. Plant Reproduction and Development 11

Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction

Fig. 8.1.9. The double fertilization process in the ovule or embryo sac of angiosperms

One important feature of reproduction in angiosperms and a few gymnosperms is double

fertilization  . Note that each pollen  grain contains two  sperm nuclei .  During double
fertilization, the pollen tube penetrates the ovary to release   two sperm cells. Specifically,
one sperm fertilizes the egg cell to form   a  diploid (2n) zygote, while the other sperm  cell
fertilizes the two polar nuclei to form a triploid (3n) endosperm .  This   endosperm will
become the food source of the growing and developing embryo.

Plant Development
During development, the cells of the plant start to increase in number .  Active   mitotic
division happens in the meristematic regions (as shown in Fig. 8.1.10.) of the roots, leaves,
and stems. Meristematic tissues are those that contain cells  that  remain undifferentiated
and retain their capacity to actively divide throughout the life of the   plant.  Regions
containing these tissues are capable of allowing vertical  and horizontal growth in plants . 
Another important feature of plant development is the series of cell differentiation that
allows plant tissues to become highly specialized according to the function of the organ
where they are located.

8.1. Plant Reproduction and Development 12

Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction

Fig. 8.1.10. The meristematic regions of the plant are located in leaves, stems, and roots.
Plants can further increase in height through the leaf and lateral bud primordia. Stems can
increase in thickness through the presence of cork cambium and vascular cambium. Lastly,
the root apical meristem allows further elongation of roots downward.

Embryogenesis
During embryogenesis, the fertilized egg  or  zygote  turns  into a mass of cells  called  the
embryo .  On the other hand, the fertilized polar nuclei, which forms  the endosperm nucleus,
further develops into a mature endosperm  . In  the later  stage  of development, the
developing embryo within the ovule matures into a seed . The wall of the ovary forms  the
pericarp or wall of the fruit. With this, the fruits   that you see in plants are  mature or
ripe forms of the angiosperm ovaries.

8.1. Plant Reproduction and Development 13

Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction

Floral structures and their counterpart in a ripe fruits

Within the fruit, you  may observe the pericarp  that  represents  the fleshy part that is usually
edible. These edible sections are often derived from the walls of the ovary. The pericarp can
be further divided into three parts.
●  Endocarp is the inner layer of the fruit that is adjacent to the seeds.
is the middle layer of the fruit.
●  Exocarp is the outer layer of the fruit that is represented as the peels of the fruits.

Parts of different types of fleshy fruits (pome, drupe, berry, and hesperidium)

8.1. Plant Reproduction and Development 14

Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction

Organogenesis
During organogenesis, the developing embryo in the seed starts to grow fully and form the
embryonic organs. Organogenesis in plants   starts when the  seeds are germinated.
Germination refers  to the process where a seed grows and  forms a young individual.  At
this stage, the seed sprouts into a seedling . 

During germination (as shown in Fig. 8.1.11),  the seeds imbibe water, which can result in
swelling and activation   of the  seed coat under certain   optimum temperatures. This
allows the seed coat to rupture, leading to the emergence of the   radicle  (to form the
primary root) and the plumule (to form the  leafy  shoot  between the cotyledons of the new
individual plant). Once the radicle and the plumule  emerge, the plant can now obtain the
needed nutrients from the soil that is essential for further development of other organs.
Then, the seed becomes more activated, where internal physiological processes start,
such as respiration, protein synthesis, and food storage.

Fig. 8.1.11. The process of seed germination in a common garden bean

For the next phase of organogenesis, the cells of the seeds undergo a series of migration
and  elongation, leading to the further development of the root and the cotyledons. The
cotyledons are the initial embryonic leaves in the new individual plant before the future
mature leaves emerge.  Another embryonic   structure that starts to emerge  is the hypocotyl.

8.1. Plant Reproduction and Development 15

Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction

The hypocotyl is  the embryonic stem of the plant   located beneath the stalks of the
cotyledons and directly above the  young  roots. Lastly,  the epicotyl is also starting to form
and  expand  to allow the vertical growth of the plant. The  epicotyl  is the embryonic region
above the cotyledon.

How doyou thinkplant cellsdevelop highly

stems, and roots?

Did YouKnow?
Plant hormones are signaling molecules   produced by plants.
These molecules are very important in regulating processes
involving growth, reproduction, and development.  Each  type of
hormone plays an important role in these processes. Plant
biologists have identified five major plant hormones. These include
gibberellin, auxin, cytokinins, ethylene , and abscisic acid .  The
respective function of each hormone is shown in the figure below.

8.1. Plant Reproduction and Development 16

 Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction

Key Points
______________________________________________________________________________________________

●  The life cycle of plants, such as bryophytes,   pteridophytes,  and spermatophytes, is

characterized by the alternation of generations .  In  this mechanism,  a plant
alternates between the diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte stages.
●  In a generalized angiosperm life cycle, a plant starts as a seed.
○  The seed imbibes water for activation, and it develops and forms a seedling.
○  The seedling will reach an adult tree that will bloom and produce flowers.
○  The flowers contain the pollen from the anther  and ovule in  the pistil that is
needed for fertilization.
●  Fertilization happens one the pollen penetrates the ovary of the flower.
●  A fertilized ovule then develops to form a fruit containing the seeds that must be
dispersed to produce new individuals, which will sexually mature.
●  Both embryogenesis and organogenesis are important processes that take place
after   the   formation of seeds in a plant. They ultimately lead to the   formation   of
functional organs in a plant body.

The general pattern of reproductive and developmental phases of the plant life cycle

8.1. Plant Reproduction and Development 17