Applied Thermodynamics – I

Nirendra N Mustafi
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology (RUET), Rajshahi,

 Reference Books
• Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals
- John B Heywood (Prof. MIT, USA); McGraw-Hill

• Internal Combustion Engine

- Mathur & Sharma; Dhanpat Rai Publications, India

• Internal Combustion Engines

- V Ganesan; McGraw-Hill, India

Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology (RUET), Rajshahi,

 AIR/FUEL AND FUEL/AIR RATIOS

 In engine testing, both the air mass flow rate and the fuel mass flow rate are
normally measured. The ratio of these flow rates is useful in defining engine
operating conditions:

Air-fuel ratio (A/F) =

Fuel-air ratio (F/A) = Heywood
53

 The normal operating range for a conventional SI engine using gasoline fuel is
12 ≤ A/F ≤ 18 (0.056 ≤ F/A ≤ 0.083);
 and for CI engines with diesel fuel, it is
18 ≤ A/F ≤ 70 (0.014 ≤ F/A ≤ 0.056).
 VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
• The intake system: the air filter, carburetor, and throttle plate (in SI engines), intake manifold,
intake port, intake valve - restricts the amount of air which an engine of given displacement
can induct. The parameter used to measure the effectiveness of an engine's induction process
is the Volumetric Efficiency, hv

• Volumetric efficiency (only for 4-stroke cycle engines) is defined as the volume flow rate of
air into the intake system divided by the rate at which volume is displaced by the piston:

- where pa,i is the inlet air density. An alternative equivalent definition for volumetric efficiency
is

- where ma is the mass of air inducted into the cylinder per cycle. Typical maximum values of
hv for naturally aspirated engines are in the range 80 to 90 percent.
 Fuel-Air or Air-Fuel Equivalence Ratio

 It is the ratio of actual F/A of the engine in operation to the F/A at stoichiometric
condition,
( 𝑨) 𝑭

ϕ𝑭
= 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍

Heywood 73
( 𝑨) 𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒊𝒄𝒉 .

 Lamda, λ is A/F equivalence ratio – just opposite to ϕ, i.e. ϕ = 1/λ.

 Lambda and A/F are both indicators of an engines combustion mixture. However, A/F is
dependent on the type of fuel being used, while lambda is not.

• λ or ϕ = 1.0 represents all fuel’s stoichiometric

value.
• ϕ > 1.0 or λ < 1.0 ⇒ Rich conditions
• ϕ < 1.0 or λ > 1.0 ⇒ Lean conditions
• Each and every fuel has its own stoichiometric A/F.
• How much for gasoline? 14.7
• How much for CH4? 17.2
• Stoichiometric A/F ratio of E85 (85% ethanol and 15%
gasoline) is 9.765. However, (A/F)stoich. for blends can
fluctuate considerably. This makes Lamba a better
tuning tool because it is not dependent on (A/F)stoich.

 The sensor reads O2 content in the product during

combustion. When the sensor detects stoichiometric
condition (no O2 in the exhaust), the lambda gauge will
display 1.0.

o If the fuel carries its own O2 or the energy content of

the fuel changes, then (A/F)stoich. changes.
o Methanol has one O2 atom in its formula, so (A/F)stoich.
is 6.45:1. That is, it takes just 6.45 parts of air for
one pound of fuel to efficiently combust.
 Excess Air

• Excess air is expressed as a percentage increase over the stoichiometric

requirement and is defined by:

actual A / F ratio  stoichiometric A / F ratio

100%
stoichiometric A / F ratio

 Excess air is always supplied during combustion in external C.C. for ensuring
complete combustion. However, it may reduce the efficiency of a combustion
system.
• Too much excess air leads to lower flame temperature ⇒ less heat gets into the
system. Also, excess air must heat up to flue gas temperature, which consumes extra
energy.
Variation of engine combustion efficiency with fuel/air equivalence ratio

Combustion Efficiency

Equivalence Ratio, ϕ
# SI engine exhaust gas composition data in mole fractions as a function of
fuel-air equivalence ratio (Fuels: gasoline and isooctane)

Mole fractions CO, CO2, O2, H2O, H2

Fuel-air equivalence Ratio, ϕ

Exhaust gas composition from several diesel engines in mole fractions on
a dry basis as a function of fuel/air equivalence ratio.

O2
Mole fractions CO, CO2, O2,

CO2

CO

Fuel-air equivalence Ratio, ϕ

 Mean Effective Pressure Heywood
50
 While torque is a valuable measure of a particular engine's ability to do work, it
depends on engine size. A large engine produces more torque for the same mean
effective pressure. For this reason, torque is not the measure of the ability of an
engine to utilize its displacement for producing power from fuel.

 A more useful relative engine performance measure is obtained by dividing the

work per cycle by the cylinder volume displaced per cycle. The parameter so
obtained has units of force per unit area and is called the Mean Effective
Pressure (mep). Higher the mean effective pressure, higher will be the power
developed by the engine for a given displacement.

 imep or bmep= Where, P = indicated or brake power (W or kW)

ng = no. of crank shaft rev. per work cycle (2 for 4-stroke, 1 for 2-
stroke)
N = engine speed (rev. per sec.)
Vd = displacement volume (cylinder x-section area multiplied by stroke
length)
 A Few Important Terminologies

• Maximum rated power-The highest power an engine is allowed to develop for

short periods of operation.
• Normal rated power-The highest power an engine is allowed to develop in
continuous operation.
• Rated speed-The crankshaft rotational speed at which rated power is developed.

Compression Ratio, rc = =

where Vd, is the displaced or swept volume and Vc is the clearance volume.

𝜋 𝑑2
𝑉 𝑑= × 𝐿 ; where d is cylinder bore, L is stroke length
4
 Specific Fuel Consumption
In engine tests, the fuel consumption is measured as mass flow rate of fuel f. A more
useful parameter is the specific fuel consumption (sfc) the fuel flow rate per unit
power output. It measures how efficiently an engine is using the fuel supplied to
produce work. (g/kW-h)

 Engine Specific Weight:

 Engine Specific Emissions

Levels of emissions of oxides of nitrogen (nitric oxide, NO, and nitrogen dioxide, NO2,
usually grouped together as NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (HC or
UHC), and particulate matter (PM) are important engine operating characteristics.
Specific emissions are the mass flow rate of pollutant per unit power output; brake
specific emissions. Unit in common use is g/bhp-h or g/kW-h.
 Flammability Limits in Hydrocarbons

• Concentration of HC fuels in combustion

air must be within a certain range for a
flame development and propagation,
defined by its Flammability limits.
• LFL ⇒ lower limit of this flammability
range and
• UFL ⇒ the upper limit of the flammability
range.
• LFL and UFL are characterized by ϕ or λ
of a given F-A mixture or charge.
• When HC concentrations are outside the
flammability range, a fire is NOT possible.
• The LFL and the UFL are different for
each chemical compound.
• Flammability limits (LFL, UFL) are typically
given at 25 °C since both temperature and
pressure effect the determination of LFL
and UFLs.
 Methane - LEL: 5% by volume in Air / UEL: 17% by volume in Air

LEL/LFL UEL/UFL
Fuel (% by volume of air) (% by volume of air)

Diesel fuel 0.6 7.5

Ethane 3 12.4
Ethyl alcohol, Ethanol 3.3 19
Gasoline 1.4 7.6
Hydrogen 4 75
Isooctane 0.79 5.94
Kerosene Jet A-1 0.7 5
Propane 2.1 10.1
Methane 5 17
Methanol 6.7 36
 Sequence of events in 4-stroke SI engine operating cycle
Cylinder pressure p (solid Line: firing cycle; dashed line: motored cycle), cylinder volume V/Vmax and
mass fraction burned, xb are plotted against crank angle.

Heywood
18
 Combustion in SI Engines
Intake system of an SI engine
an air filter, a carburetor and throttle or fuel injector and throttle or throttle with individual
fuel injectors in each intake port, and intake manifold.
Under normal operating conditions,
• In the intake system, fuel and air are mixed together (in a carburetor)

• inducted through the intake valve into the cylinder

• mixing with residual gas takes place,

• then compressed

• combustion is initiated towards the end of the compression stroke at the spark
plug by an electric discharge
• inflammation, and a turbulent flame develops

• flame propagates through this essentially premixed fuel, air, burned gas
mixture until it reaches the combustion chamber walls
• the flame extinguishes
• Spark discharges at -30°
• flame first becomes visible at Different Stages of Combustion in
about - 24° SI Engines
• flame, approx. circular in outline;
propagates outward from the
spark plug location
• blue light from the flame is
emitted most strongly from the
flame front
• flame reaches the cylinder wall -30° -20° -10°
farthest from the spark plug
about 15° ATC, but combustion
continues around parts of the
chamber periphery for another
10°
• additional radiation-- initially TDC 10°
Exhaust valve Spark plug
white, turning to pinky-orange-
centered at the spark plug
location is evident
• this afterglow comes from the
gases behind the flame which 30°
Inlet valve
20°
burned earlier in the combustion
process
 Other Important Features
• After spark discharge, for a certain period - the
energy release from the developing flame is very
small – no recognizable pressure rise.

P, atm
• Flame continues to grow and propagates across the
combustion chamber – cylinder pressure steadily
rises above the non-firing value.
motored
• The peak pressure appears after TDC but before
the cylinder charge is fully burned, and then
decreases TDC
Spark
• The shape of the pressure, and mass fraction

Mass fraction burned, xb

burned curves for each cycle differ significantly
• The flame development and subsequent propagation
vary, cycle-by-cycle
• Because flame growth depends on local mixture
motion and composition.
• These variations occur cycle-by-cycle in any given
cylinder and may vary cylinder-to-cylinder.
TDC
 Other Important Features (cont.)
• There is some unburned mixture behind the visible flame front
- even when the entire combustion chamber is fully enflamed, some 25% mass has still
to bum.
• From the previous description it is reasonable to divide the SI engine combustion
process into four distinct phases:
- Spark ignition;
- early flame development;
- flame propagation; and
- flame termination
• Combustion starts (known as SOC) before the end of the compression stroke,
continues through the early part of the expansion stroke, and ends after the point
in the cycle at which the peak cylinder pressure occurs.
• The combined duration of the flame development and propagation process is
typically between 30 and 90 crank angle degrees.
• The combustion duration is defined as the period from 10% to 90% of mixture
combust up (xb), which is mainly a turbulent combustion and greatly be accelerated
by turbulence in cylinder.
 Optimum or Max. Brake Torque Spark Timing

• If the SOC is progressively advanced before TDC, the

compression stroke work transfer (which is from the
piston to the cylinder gases) increases – net work
output reduces.
• If the EOC is progressively delayed by retarding the
spark timing the peak cylinder pressure occurs later in
the expansion stroke and is reduced in magnitude - Spark Timing (°CA)
reduces the expansion stroke work transfer from the
cylinder gases to the piston – net work output reduces.
• The optimum timing which gives the maximum brake
torque – called MBT timing. Spark timing advanced or
retarded from this optimum gives lower torque.
• The optimum spark setting will depend on engine
design and operating conditions, and the properties of
the fuel, air, burned gas mixture.
Spark Timing (°CA)
 Combustion Quality

• The concept of combustion quality for SI engines is on the basis of how closely the actual cycle
approaches the ideal Otto cycle, where the combustion takes place at constant volume.
 The faster a cycle completes its combustion neat TDC, the greater its contribution to the overall
efficiency
 Good combustion – almost entirely made up of fast burn cycles
 Poor combustion – consists of a high proportion of late and delayed burn cycles

Effect of engine variables on flame propagation

1. Fuel-air ratio
2. Compression ratio
3. Intake temperature and pressure
4. Engine load
5. Engine speed
6. Turbulence
 1. Fuel-air ratio 2. Compression ratio

• Higher CR increases the temp. and pressure of the

• Slightly rich side of the
mixture and decreases the residual gases → speed up
stoichiometric point provides the the combustion by increasing the flame propagation
highest flame speed
 • Increased intake temp. and pressure increases the flame
3. Intake temp. and pressure → propagation

• Increased engine load, the cycle pressure increases → increases the flame
4. Engine load → propagation

• Turbulence accelerates chemical reaction by intimate mixing of fuel and O2 →

5. Turbulence → heat exchange between burnt and non-burnt gases increases → flame speed
increases → weak mixture can be burnt → no abnormal combustion
• Increases the het flow to the cylinder wall and in the limit excessive turbulence
may result in flame extinguish.
• Excessive turbulence may result in rough and noisy engine run

• The higher the engine speed, the greater the turbulence inside the engine cylinder
6. Engine speed → → flame speed increases almost linearly with engine speed
• Flame propagation in time unit reduces proportionately but in degree CA unit it
remain almost the same → reuires advances in spark timing
 Abnormal Combustion in SI Engines
• Two types of abnormal combustions are occurred in SI engines: Knocking and Surface Ignition
• Knock is the most important abnormal combustion phenomenon. Its name comes from the noise that
results from the autoignition of a portion of the fuel, air, residual gas mixture ahead of the advancing
flame.
 About Knock
• Knock - the most important abnormal combustion phenomenon.
• Autoignition of a portion of the fuel, air, residual gas mixture ahead of the advancing flame results in
undesirable noise – known as knocking
• While the flame propagates across the combustion chamber, the unburned mixture ahead of the flame
– known as the ‘end gas’ - gets compressed, causing its pressure, temperature, and density to increase
substantially.
• Some of the ‘end-gas’ mixture may undergo chemical reactions before the flame arrival - products of
these reactions may then autoignite spontaneously
• When this happens, the end gas burns very rapidly - releasing its energy at a rate 5 to 25 times that
characteristic of normal combustion.
• Causes high frequency pr. oscillations inside the cylinder that produce the sharp metallic noise
called knock.
• Knock – a result of a race between the advancing flame front and the pre-combustion reactions in the
unburned end gas.
• If the flame front consumes the end gas before these reactions to cause autoignition of the end gas – no
Knock
• If the pre-combustion reactions produce autoignition before the flame front arrives - Knock.
 Surface Ignition

• Surface Ignition - another important abnormal combustion phenomenon by any source other
than normal spark ignition.
• Surface ignition - ignition of the fuel-air charge by overheated valves or spark plugs, by
glowing combustion-chamber deposits, or by any other hot spot in the engine combustion
chamber
• It may occur before the spark plug ignites the charge (pre-ignition) or after normal ignition
(post-ignition).
• It may produce a single flame or many flames.
• Uncontrolled combustion is most evident and its effects most severe when it results from
pre-ignition.
• However, even when surface ignition occurs after the spark plug fires (post-ignition), the
spark discharge no longer has complete control of the combustion process.
 Normal combustion Abnormal combustion
A combustion process which is initiated A combustion process in which a flame front
solely by a timed spark and in which the may be started by hot combustion chamber
flame front moves completely across the surfaces either prior to or after spark ignition, or
combustion chamber in a uniform a process in which some part or all of the charge
manner at a normal velocity. may be consumed at extremely high rates.

Spark knock Surface ignition

A knock which is recurrent and repeatable in
terms of audibility. It is controllable by the
spark advance; advancing the spark
increases the knock intensity and retarding
the spark reduces the intensity.
hot spots-combustion chamber deposits
Surface ignition is ignition of the fuel-air charge by any hot
surface other than the spark discharge prior to the arrival of the
normal flame front. It may occur before the spark ignites the
charge (preignition) or after normal ignition (postignition).

Run-on
Continuation of engine
Knocking surface ignition Non-Knocking
firing after the electrical
Knock which has been surface ignition
ignition is shut off.
preceded by surface ignition. Surface ignition, which
It is not controllable by spark does not result in
Runaway surface ignition knock
advance.
Surface ignition which occurs
earlier and earlier in the cycle –
severe overheating and structural
damage to the engine.

Wild Ping Rumble

Knocking surface ignition characterized A low-pitched thudding noise accompanied by
by one or more erratic sharp cracks. It engine roughness. Probably caused by the
is probably the result of early surface high rates of pressure rise associated with
ignition from deposit particles. very early ignition or multiple surface ignition.
Effects of Knocking in
SI Engines

• Noise and Roughness

• Mechanical Damage
• Carbon Deposits
• Increase in Heat Transfer
• Decrease in Power Output and Efficiency
• Pre-ignition
 Prevention Methods
• Preignition occurs at least well-cooled parts and where deposits build up and provide additional
thermal insulation: primary examples are spark plugs, exhaust valves, metal asperities such as
edges of head cavities or piston bowls.
• Under normal conditions, preignition is usually initiated by an exhaust valve covered with
deposits coming from the fuel and from the lubricant which penetrates into the combustion
chamber.
• Colder running exhaust valves and reduced oil consumption usually alleviate this problem:
locating the exhaust valve between the spark plug and the end-gas region avoids contact with
both the hottest burned gas near the spark plug and the end-gas.
• Engine design features that minimize the likelihood of preignition are: appropriate heat-range
spark plug, removal of asperities, well-cooled exhaust valves with sodium-cooled valves as an
extreme option.
 Effects of Engine Variables on Knocking
• It has been understood that to prevent knock in SI engines, the end gas should have
- a low temperature
- a low density
- a long ignition lag/delay
- a non-reactive fuel-air mixture composition
• Temperature Factors: i) raising the CR; ii) supercharging; iii) raising inlet temp.; iv) raising
coolant temp.; v) increasing engine load (wide open throttle); vi) advancing spark timing; vii)
raising temp. of the combustion chamber walls
• Density Factors: i) raising the CR; ii) increasing engine load (wide open throttle); iii)
supercharging; iv) raising inlet temp.
• Time Factors: i) increasing flame travel distance (combustion chamber shape/design, spark plug &
exhaust valve location, engine size); ii) lowering turbulence; iii) lowering engine speed

• Fuel Factors: i) octane rating of the fuel; ii) chemical structure/composition of the fuel; iii) fuel-air
ratio; iv) humidity of the air
 Summary
Knocking Tendency versus Engine Variables
 Fuel Factors
• The occurrence and severity of knock depend on the knock resistance of the fuel and on the
antiknock characteristics of the engine.
• In general, the lower the self/auto-ignition temp. of the fuel or the greater its preflame
reactivity, the greater the tendency to knock.
• The ability of a fuel to resist knock is measured by its octane number: higher octane numbers
indicate greater resistance to knock.
• An engine's tendency to knock, as defined by its octane requirement-the octane rating of the
fuel required to avoid knock-is increased by factors that produce higher temperatures and
pressures or lengthen the burning time.
• Individual hydrocarbon compounds vary enormously in their ability to resist knock, depending
on their molecular size and structure: paraffin series have the max. and aromatic series have the
min. tendency to knock, while napthene series comes in between.
• Gasoline is a blend of hydrocarbons: olefins, aromatics, paraffins, and napthenes with some
contaminants (S, N2, O2 and certain metals).
 Knocking tendency versus fuel molecular structure
Paraffins (CnH2n+2)
1. Increasing the length of the carbon chain increases the knocking tendency.
2. Compacting the carbon atoms by incorporating side chains (thereby shortening the length of the basic chain)
decreases the tendency to knock.
3. Adding methyl groups (CH3) to the side of the basic carbon chain, in the second from the end or center
position, decreases the knocking tendency.
Olefins (CnH2n)
4. The introduction of one double bond has little antiknock effect; two or three double bonds generally result
in appreciably less knocking tendency.
5. Exceptions to this rule are acetylene (C2H2), ethylene (C2H4), and propylene (C3H6), which knock much more
readily than the corresponding saturated hydrocarbons.
Napthenes and aromatics
6. Napthenes have significantly greater knocking tendency than have
the corresponding size aromatics.
7. Introducing one double bond has little antiknock effect; two and
three double bonds generally reduce knocking tendency appreciably.
8. Lengthening the side chain attached to the basic ring structure
increases the knocking tendency in both groups of fuels, whereas
Olefins Aromatics
branching of the side chain decreases the knocking tendency.
 Octane Rating of Fuel
• The octane number (ON) scale is based on two hydrocarbons: the ends of the scale: normal heptane (n-
C7H16) has a value of zero and isooctane (C8H18,: 2,2,4-trimethylpentane) has an octane number of 100.
• These hydrocarbons were chosen because of the great difference in their ability to resist knock.
• Blends of these two hydrocarbons define the knock resistance of intermediate octane numbers: e.g., a
blend of 10% n-heptane and 90% isooctane has an octane number of 90.
• A fuel's octane number is determined by measuring what blend of these two hydrocarbons matches the
fuel's knock resistance.
• Another way of increasing the ON is used gasoline octane boosters as additives, such as tetraethyl/methyl
lead (TEL/TML), MMT (methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl) and ferrocene (C 10H10Fe).
• Addition of alcohols: ethanol, methanol (ON=130), TBA (tertiary butyl alcohol) also increase the ON of
gasoline. The advantage to adding oxygenates, such as MTBE, methanol, and ethanol, to gasoline is that
they cause very little pollution when they burn and are cleaner fuels.
 Basic Requirements of a Good Combustion Chamber (CC)

• Design of a CC involves the shape and size of the CC, the location of the spark plug, and the disposition
of inlet and exhaust valve

3 main requirements of an SI engine CC

High power output with

High thermal efficiency Smooth engine operation
minimum octane rating

1. Permits use of High compression
ratio
2. Use small or no excess air
3. Ensure complete utilization of air
4. Provide an optimum degree of
turbulence
5. Provide high volumetric efficiency
# Combustion chamber design principles
1. Permits use of High compression
ratio
2. Ensure small heat loss during
combustion
3. Ensure proper scavenging of the
exhaust gases
1. Ensure moderate pr. Rise during
combustion
2. Ensure good protection against knock
i) Compact CC – short
distance for flame to travel
ii) Properly locating spark
plug
iii) Satisfactory cooling of hot
spots
 Ricardo's turbulent head (L-Head Type)
• The main objectives of the Ricardo's turbulent head design to obtain fast flame
speed and reduced knock

Advantages:
• Additional turbulence during compression stroke is possible.
• This design ensures a more homogeneous mixture by scoring away the layer of
stagnant gas clinging to chamber wall.
• Both the above factors increase the flame speed and thus the performance.
• Relatively insensitive to timing of spark due to fast combustion
• Reduces the tendency to knock
• Reduces length of flame travel by placing the spark plug in the center of effective
combustion space.

Disadvantage
• These types of chambers are not suitable for engine with high compression ratio
 Overhead Type Combustion Chambers
I-Head type
• Overhead valve type or I-head combustion chamber has both the inlet
valve and the exhaust valve located in the cylinder head.
• An overhead engine is superior to side valve engine at high compression
ratios.
• Less surface to volume ratio and therefore less heat loss. # I-head combustion chamber
• Less flame travel length and hence greater freedom from knock.

Wedge Type Combustion Chamber

• In this design slightly inclined valves are used.
• This design also has given very satisfactory performance.
• A modern wedge type design can be seen in for Plymouth V-8 engine. It
has a stoke of 99 mm and bore of 84mm with compression ratio 9:1.

# Wedge type combustion

chamber
 F-Head Combustion Chambers

• In this design inlet valve is in head and exhaust valve is in the engine
block

Advantages
• High volumetric efficiency # The Rover design
• Maximum compression ratio for fuel of given octane rating
• High thermal efficiency
• It can operate on leaner air-fuel ratios without misfiring.
Drawback
• This design is the complex mechanism for operation of valves and
expensive special shaped piston.

# Willeys jeep design

 High Output Type Combustion Chamber

 Hemispherical combustion chamber with inclined valves – the best

design for high power output.

Advantages
• Very compact CC
• High volumetric efficiency – permitting larger inlet
valves
• Smaller surface to volume ratio – less heat loss through
walls – greater thermal efficiency
# Hemispherical CC # Jaguar CC
• Has been used for racing engines and sport cars
• Has been used for motor-cycle engines
• Supercharged engines usually employ hemispherical CC