Dr.

Arman Shah Bin Abdullah,

B.Eng Hon.(Manuf. Eng), M.Eng. Adv. Manuf. Eng, Phd Mechanical
engineering
Coordinator
Research Management Unit
Research Management and Innovation Centre
Research Management Innovation Complex

Machining processes
What is Machining Process?

Machining is any of
various processes in which a piece of
raw material is cut into a desired final
shape and size by a controlled material-
removal process
 Machining Processes

Variables in Processes of Metal Cutting:

• Machine tool selected to
perform the processes
• Cutting tool (geometry and
material)
• Properties and parameters of workpiece
Fig. 1.0 Value addition by machining
• Cutting parameters (speed, feed, depth of
It is a value addition process by cut)
which raw materials of low utility • Workpiece holding devices (fixture or
and value due to its inadequate jigs)
material properties and poor or
irregular size, shape and finish are
converted into high utility and
valued products with definite
dimensions, forms and finish
imparting some functional ability.

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 Classification of Machining
Traditional Process (Machining)
Material removal by a sharp cutting
tool. e.g., turning, milling and
drilling. The ‘‘other machining
operations’’ in Figure
1.1 include shaping, planing,
broaching, and sawing.
Abrasive processes – Material
removal by hard, abrasive particles,
e.g., grinding. The ‘‘other abrasive
processes’’ in Figure 1.1 include
honing, lapping, and superfinishing.
Nontraditional processes - Various
energy forms other than sharp
cutting tool or abrasive materials to
remove material generally by
erosion. e.g., Laser and Electron
Beam machining. The energy forms
include mechanical, electrochemical, Figure 1.1: Classification of
thermal, and chemical material removal 5
processes
 Metal Removal Processes
MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF CONVENTIONAL MACHINING
 Generally macroscopic chip formation by shear deformation
 Material removal takes place due to application of cutting forces – energy
domain can be classified as mechanical
 Cutting tool is harder than work piece at room temperature as well as under
machining conditions

ADVANTAGES OF MACHINING
 Variety of work materials can be machined
 Variety of part shapes and special geometric features possible
 Good dimensional accuracy
 Good surface finish

DISADVANTAGES WITH MACHINING

 Chips generated in machining are wasted material
 Time consuming process
 Require more energy and labor than forming and shaping operations

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 Basic Principle of Machining
Machining is a manufacturing process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to cut away material to leave the
desired part shape. The predominant cutting action in machining involves shear deformation of the work
material to form a chip; as the chip is removed, a new surface is exposed. Machining is most frequently
applied to shape metals.

Figure 1.2: Machining process principle overview

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 Machining Operations
Turning: Single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating workpiece to form a
cylindrical shape
Drilling: Used to create a round hole, usually by means of a rotating tool (drill bit) with two
cutting edges
Milling: Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved across work to cut a plane or straight
surface.
Shaping and planning: Used to create flat surface
Broaching : Multi teeth tool used to make roughing and finishing in single stroke
Sawing: Used for cutoff operations

Figure 1.3: Seven basic machining processes in chip formation

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Classification of Cutting Tools
According to cutting edges
 Single point: e.g., turning tools, shaping, planning and slotting
tools and boring tools
 Double (two) point: e.g., drills
 Multipoint (more than two): e.g., milling cutters, broaching tools,
hobs, gear shaping cutters etc.

According to motion
 Linear motion tools – lathe tools, brooches
 Rotary motion tools – milling cutters, grinding wheels
 Linear & rotary motion tools – drills, taps, etc.

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Cutting Tool Characteristics:
1. Maintaining hardness, strength, and wear resistance at elevated
temperatures. This property ensures that the tool does not undergo any
plastic deformation and thus retains its shape and sharpness.

2. Toughness and impact strength (or mechanical shock resistance), so that

impact forces on the tool that are encountered repeatedly in interrupted
cutting operations or forces due to vibration and chatter during machining do
not chip or fracture the tool.

3. Thermal Shock resistance to withstand the rapid temperature cycling

encountered in interrupted cutting.

4. Wear resistance so that an acceptable tool life is obtained before replacement

is necessary.

5. Chemical stability to avoid or minimize any adverse reactions, adhesion, and

tool-chip diffusion.
 Cutting tool materials
• Tool Materials Categories:

High-speed steels
Cast-cobalt alloys
Carbides
Coated tools
Alumina-based ceramics
Cubic boron nitride
Silicon-nitride-base ceramics
Diamond
Whisker-reinforced materials
 Hardness of Cutting
Tool Materials as a
Function of
Temperature
Figure 22.1 The hardness of
various cutting-tool materials as
a function of temperature (hot
hardness). The wide range in
each group of materials is due to
the variety of tool compositions
and treatments available for that
group.
General Properties of Tool Materials
General Properties of Tool Materials
The properties listed in the first column are useful in determining desirable
tool-material characteristics for a particular application. For example,

• Hardness and strength are important with respect to the mechanical

properties of the workpiece material to be machined.

• Impact strength is important in making interrupted cuts in machining,

such as in milling.

• Melting temperature of the tool material is important as compared to the

temperatures developed in the cutting zone.

• The physical properties of thermal conductivity and coefficient of

thermal expansion are important in determining the resistance of the
tool materials to thermal fatigue and shock.
General Characteristics of Cutting-Tool Materials
Operating Characteristics of Cutting-Tool Materials
Cutting Fluids
Cutting Fluids: Definition & Purpose
DEFINITION: A cutting fluid is any liquid or gas that is applied
directly to
the machining operation to improve cutting performance.
PURPOSE:
 Act as lubricant: Reduce friction and wear by acting as a film
and hence also reduce welding tendency.
 Act as coolant: Cooling of cutting zone and hence increasing
tool life & improving dimensional stability, Reducing the
temperature of the workpart for easier handling
 Reduce forces and energy consumption.
 Flush away the chips from the cutting zone to avoid
interference in cutting
 Protect the machined surface from environmental corrosion
(weakening and depletion of surface by deposition of other
matter like rust) & contamination by the gases like SO2, O2,
H2S, and NxOy present in the atmosphere 17
Essential Properties of Cutting Fluids
 For cooling:
 High specific heat (high heat absorbing capacity), thermal
conductivity and
film coefficient for heat transfer
 spreading and wetting ability
 For lubrication:
 High lubricity without gumming (accumulation & sticking of dirt &
dust) and foaming
 Wetting and spreading
 High film boiling point
 Friction reduction at extreme pressure and temperature
 Chemical stability, non-corrosive to the materials of the system
 less volatile (tendency of evaporation) and high flash point
(temperature at which fluid vapor ignite by some source)
 high resistance to bacterial growth
 odorless and also preferably colorless
 nontoxic in both liquid and gaseous stage
 Easily available and low cost.
 It should permit clear view of the work operation. 18
 Selection of Cutting Fluids
 For high speed machining of not-difficult-to-machine materials greater cooling type fluids are
preferred
 For low speed machining of both conventional and difficult-to-machine materials greater
lubricating type fluid is preferred.
Grey cast iron:
 Generally dry for its self-lubricating property
 Air blast for cooling and flushing chips
Steels:
 Soluble oil for cooling and flushing chips in high speed machining and grinding
 If machined by HSS tools, sol. Oil (1: 20 ~30) for low carbon and alloy steels and neat oil with EPA
for heavy cuts
 If machined by carbide tools thinner sol. Oil for low strength steel, thicker sol. Oil ( 1:10 ~ 20) for
stronger
steels and straight sulphurised oil for heavy and low speed cuts and EP cutting oil for high alloy
steel.
 Often steels are machined dry by carbide tools for preventing thermal shocks.
Aluminum and its alloys:
 Preferably machined dry
 Light but oily soluble oil
 Straight neat oil or kerosene oil for stringent cuts.
Copper and its alloys:
 Water based fluids are generally used
 Oil with or without inactive EPA for tougher grades of Cu-alloy.
Stainless steels and Heat resistant alloys:
 High performance soluble oil or neat oil with
 High concentration with chlorinated EP additive.
The brittle ceramics and cermets should be used either under dry condition or light neat oil in case of
fine finishing. Grinding at high speed needs cooling (1: 50 ~ 100) soluble oil. For finish grinding of
metals and alloys low viscosity neat oil is also used. 7
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 Functions or uses of coolants or cutting fluids

The important functions of cutting fluids are given as follows;

(i) Cutting fluid washes away the chips and hence keeps the cutting region free.
(ii) It helps in keeping freshly machined surface bright by giving a protective coating
against atmospheric, oxygen and thus protects the finished surface from corrosion.
(iii)It decreases wear and tear of cutting tool and hence increases tool life.
(iv) It improves machinability and reduces power requirements.
(v) It prevents expansion of workpieces.
(vi) It cools the tool and workpiece and removes the generated heat from the cutting zone.
(vii)It decreases adhesion between chip and tool, provides lower friction and wear, and a
smaller built-up edge.
 Types of cutting fluids
Water
A poor lubricant, has little wetting action, it also encourages rusting and is suitable only as a coolant
during tool grinding.

Soluble Oils
With water, they form an intimate mixture, or emulsion, by adding emulsifying agents. While the oil
prevents rusting, it is suitable for light cutting operations, i.e. low metal removal rates
.
Mineral Oils
They are suitable for heavier cutting operations, i.e. high metal removal rates, because of their much
better lubricating properties. Sulfur compounds are added to prevent the chip welding to the rake face
and forming BUE. They should not be used on Cu and its alloys since they have corrosive effect on
them, but are suitable for steels.

Vegetable Oils
They are little used since they are liable to decompose and smell, and may become a health hazard.