Stones

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 Stone monuments – World

Gobekli Tepe, Turkey

10000 – 9000 BCE

Ggantija, Malta
3600 BCE

Great Pyramid of Giza, Egypt Macchu Picchu, Peru

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2560 BCE 1400-1500 CE
Stone monuments – India

Amarnath Temple, Kashmir- 300 BCE

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 Stone monuments – India

Masroor Rock Cut Temple, Himachal Pradesh (8th Century)

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Stone monuments – India

(Konark Temple, Odhisa- 13th Century)

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Stone monuments – India

Aihole, Karnataka (5th Century)

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Stone monuments – India

Akkana Madanna cave temple, Andra Pradesh, 17th Century

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Stone monuments – India

Mamallpuram, Tamil Nadu (700-742 CE)

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 Stone monuments – Maharashtra

Ajanta (100 BCE) Kailasa, Ellora (5-7 century CE) Elephanta caves (5-8 Century CE)

Karli (2 BC – 2 CE) Mahakali Caves (1 BCE – 6 CE) Pandu Leni (3 BCE – 2 CE)

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 Why stones are used in construction?

• Availability (Natural – Not manufactured)

• Strength

• Durable – Stands for more than 1000 of years

• Shape and Size – Can be made into any shape and size

• Relatively Economic

• Sustainable 10
 Stones – Classification
• Composed of minerals (either a single mineral, or a mixture of minerals).

• A mineral is naturally occurring, inorganic, has an order internal arrangement of atoms, and has
a definite composition (or range of compositions). For example, Quartz, Halite, Gypsum, Opal,
Feldspar, Biotite (mica), Hornblende, Kaolinite, Calcite, Dolomite etc.
• Classification
• Geological – Igneous (Granite), Sedimentary (Limestone), and Metamorphic (Marble)

• Physical – Stratified (Slate, Limestone), Unstratified (Granite, Basalt), Foliated (Gneiss)

• Chemical
• Siliceous (consisting of quartz and Sand) – Granite, Quartzite, Sand stone
• Argillaceous (consisting of clay minerals) – Slate
• Calcareous (Consisting of Carbonates of lime) – Marble, Limestone
• Dolomitic – Containing double carbonates of calcium and magnesium 11
 Stones – some more info
• 95% of the outer 10 miles of the earth’s crust is composed of igneous
and metamorphic rocks

• 75% of the rocks exposed on the surface of the earth are sedimentary

• Stones used for Construction – hard, durable, free from weathered

materials, cracks and defects

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 Stones - Applications
• Columns, Beams, Floors slabs, Roofs, Lintels, Shelves ..

• Masonry (Walls, Foundation)

• Pavements (Walkways, Driveways)

• Manufacture of Cement and Lime

• Aggregates in concrete

• Ornamental work (External façade)

• Base material for water and sewage filters 13

 Stones – Criteria for selection
• Type of application  Properties  Cost
• Appearance, Colour, Texture (IS 1123:1998)
• Strength
Compressive (IS 1121 – Part 1:1998)
Transverse (IS 1121 – Part 2:1998)
Tension (IS 1121 – Part 3:1998)
Shear (IS 1121 – Part 4:1998)
• Durability (IS 1125:1998, IS 1126:1998)
• Water absorption, Specific gravity, Porosity (IS 1122:1998, 1124:1998)
• Impact resistance (IS 5640:1970)
• Toughness (IS 5218:1969)
• Resistance to Wear/Abrasion (IS 1706:1998)
• Acid resistance (IS 4122:1967)
• Water permeability (IS 4121:1967, IS 4348:1998)
• Easiness of dressing (1129:1972)
• Seasoning
• Hardness (Dorry`s test)
• Fire resistance
• Freezing and Thawing Test 14
 Deterioration & Preservation
• Fatigue - wetting and drying, freezing and thawing, temperature
• Deleterious substances (Chlorides, sulphates) - Seashores, Industrial areas,
contaminated soils, water & air
• Vegetation growth
• Chemicals from Mortar
• Abrasion – Waterfalls, rainfall (with harmful agents – acid rain)

• Using one of the following preservatives

• Linseed Oil
• Solution of Alum and Soap (40:60) along with water
• Solution of barium hydroxide
• Paraffin
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• Paints !?
 Relevant – IS codes numbers
• IS 1121 (Part 1): 1998 Methods of test for determination of strength properties of natural building stones: Compressive strength(First revision)
• IS 1121 (Part 2): 1974 Methods of test for determination of strength properties of natural building stones: Transverse strength (First revision)
• IS 1121 (Part 3): 1974 Methods of test for determination of strength properties of natural building stones: Tensile strength (First revision)
• IS 1121 (Part 4): 1974 Methods of test for determination of strength properties of natural building stones: Shear strength (First revision)
• IS 1122:1974:Method of test for determination of true specific gravity of natural building stones (First revision)
• IS 1123:1975: Method of identification of natural building stones (First revision)
• IS 1124:1974: Method of test for determination of water absorption, apparent specific gravity and porosity of natural building stones (First revision)
• IS 1125:1974: Method of test for determination of weathering of natural building stones (First revision)
• IS 1126:1974: Method of test for determination of durability of natural building stones (First revision)
• IS 1127:1970:Recommendations for dimensions and workmanship of natural building stones for masonry work (First revision)
• IS 1128:1974 Specification for limestone (slab and tiles) (First revision)
• IS 1129:1972 Recommendation for dressing of natural building stones (First revision)
• IS 1130:1969 Specification for marble (blocks, slabs and tiles)
• IS 1706:1972 Method of determination of resistance to wear by abrasion of natural building stones (First revision)
• IS 3316:1974 Specification for structural granite (First revision)
• IS 3620:1979 Specification for laterite stone block for masonry (First revision)
• IS 3622:1977 Specification for sand stone (slabs and tiles) (first revision)
• IS 4121:1967 Method of test for determination of water transmission rate by capillary action through natural building stones
• IS 4122:1967 Method of test for surface softening of natural building stones by exposure to acidic atmospheres
• IS 4348:1973 Methods of test for determination of permeability of natural building stones (First revision)
• IS 5218:1969 Method of test for toughness of natural building stones
• IS 5640:1970 Method of test for determining the aggregate impact value of soft coarse aggregates
• IS 6250:1981 Specification for roofing slate tiles (First revision) 16
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 Stone façade
• Other names used to describe Stone façade
• Thin Stone Veneer
• Natural Stone Veneer
• Real Stone Veneer
• Stone Cladding
• Stone Covering
• Stone Dado
• Stone Facing
• Stone Fascia SP 7 (2005)
• Stone Layer
• Stone Lining
• Stone Overlay
• Stone Overlayer
• Stone Paneling
• Stone Panels
• Stone Sheathing
• Stone Sheeting
• Stone Siding 
• Stone Stratum
• Stone Veneer
• Stone Wainscot
• Stone Wrap
• Stone Wrapping
• Thinstone
http://www.stoneyard.com/information/articles/what-all-natural-real-stone-veneer/
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Random Rubble masonry

http://costford.com/img/photos/rubble-foundation.jpg 19
 Compressive strength (IS 1121 (Part 1)
• Shape – Cubes or Cylinders, Diameter or lateral dimension > 50 mm
• Aspect ratio ≥ 1, Load bearing surfaces – Parallel (nearest 0.2 mm)
• Testing Conditions (3 samples for each condition)
• Saturated Condition : The test pieces shall be immersed in water maintained at 20 to 30°C
for 72 h before testing and shall be tested.
• Dry Condition : The test pieces shall also be tested in a dry condition and shall be dried in
an oven at 105 ± 5°C for 24 h and cooled in a desiccator to room temperature (20 to 30°C).
• Loading rate - 140 kg/ cm2 per minute
• Record Maximum load at failure
• Compressive strength (Average of 3 specimens) = Load (N or kg)/ Area (mm2 or cm2)
• Ratio of height to diameter ratio differs from unity by 25 % or more, then
• Cc =Cp/(0.778 + 0.222 ( b ÷ h ))
• Cc = compressive strength of standard test piece, Cp = compressive strength of the specimen
having a height greater than the diameter or lateral dimension, b = diameter or lateral 20
 Transverse Strength (IS 1211 Part 2)
• Specimen dimension – 200 mm × 50 mm × 50 mm
• Testing Conditions
• Saturated Condition : The test pieces shall be immersed in water maintained at 20
to 30°C for 72 h before testing and shall be tested
• Dry Condition : The test pieces shall also be tested in a dry condition and shall be
dried in an oven at 105 ± 5°C for 24 h and cooled in a desiccator to room
temperature (20 to 30°C).
• Loading rate - 200 kg per minute
• Record Maximum load (W) at failure
• Transverse strength (Average of 3 specimens) = 3WL/bd2
• L = Span (150 mm), b = d =50 mm

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 Durability (IS 1126)
• Dimension – 50 mm φ × 50 mm height
• Dry the specimen for 24 hours and weighed (W1)
1. Suspended in Saturated solution of Sodium sulphate decahydrate – 16 to 18 hours
at 20-30 ˚C
2. Air dry for 30 minutes and oven dry (105 ± 5˚C) for 4 hours
3. Cooled to room temperature
4. Repeat step 1 to 3 for 30 cycles
5. Thorough washing to free from sodium sulphates solution
6. Weigh the specimen (W2)
• Weigh the Specimens after every 5 cycles and note it
• Results (3 specimens) – [(W1 - W2)/ W1] × 100
• Check for development of cracks or spalling 22
Resistance to Wear/ Abrasion (IS 1706:1998)
• Dimension of specimen – 7.06 cm3 , 3 Specimens
• Grinding path – 20 g of abrasive powder
• Dry Specimen at 110˚C for 24 hours-Weigh (W1) and thickness readings
• Load at pressure stamp 30 kg
• Speed – 30 rev/min, revolutions  110 + 110
• Change the abrasive powder every 22 rev.
• Turn around specimen about vertical axis after 110 rev.
• Weigh the specimen (W2).
• Measure the thickness of the specimen.
• Test shall be repeated for 6 faces of each specimen https://www.acmescientific.in/dorry-abrasion-testing-machine.htm

• Alternate thickness determination t = 10 [(W1-W2)/(W1 × A)] × V1

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Laterite

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