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Syllabus
Characteristics of different types of channels, storage
channels;
Digital modulation schemes, Digital transmission:
Mapping, impulse shaping, receiver design, inter-
symbol interference, eye diagram, noise, symbol error
probability for multilevel transmission, partial
response technique;
Equivalent baseband channel;
Equalizer, adaptive equalizer;

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Syllabus
System design with joint Nyquist and matched filter
condition;
Orthogonal signals, correlation receiver and
equivalent matched filter receiver;
Optimum detection: Bayes, Maximum Likelihood
(ML) and Maximum Aposteriori Probability (MAP)
detection, ML symbol by symbol and sequence
detection, soft and hard decision, Viterbi algorithm,
Viterbiequalizer;
Soft input decoding of convolutional codes;
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Syllabus
Principles of Code Division Multiplex and Access
(CDMA), near-far problem, multi-user interference,
synchronous orthogonal receiver;
Time varying multipath channels for mobile
communication, time and Doppler-variant transfer
function, statistical channel description, scattering
function, AWGN channel with Rayleigh-fading, error
probability; Principles of Turbo Coding.

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What is Digital Communications? Why required.

Characterization of Communication Channels

Properties of Media and Digital Transmission

Systems

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Digital Networks
Digital transmission enables networks to support
many services

TV E-mail

Telephone

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Questions of Interest
How long will it take to transmit a message?
How many bits are in the message (text, image)?
How fast does the network/system transfer
information?
Can a network/system handle a voice (video) call?
How many bits/second does voice/video require? At
what quality?
What transmission speed is possible over radio,
copper cables, fiber, infrared, …?

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Binary representation of information

Most digital information is represented in binary, or

in a form related to binary
Binary two possible values-- 0 and 1
Four bit word can represent 16= 24 possible values
n bits can represent 2n values
28 =256 number of different values of a
byte
210 =1024 1024 = k in computer terms: 1 kbit=
1024 bits

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Block versus Stream Information
Block Stream
Information that occurs Information that is
in a single block produced and
 Text message transmitted
 Data file continuously
 JPEG image  Real-time voice
 MPEG file  Streaming video
Size = Bits / block
or bytes/block Bit rate = bits / second
 1 kbyte = 2 bytes
10  1 kbps = 103 bps

 1 Mbyte = 220 bytes  1 Mbps = 106 bps

 1 Gbyte = 230 bytes  1 Gbps =109 bps

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Different requirement for real time and block-
oriented information
Block oriented
 Small delays not critical
 for example a delay of a second or two in transmitting a file is

not important
Interactive speech or video
 Delay is the limiting factor
 A round trip delay of a second makes interactive speech

impossible

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Transmission Delay
 L number of bits in message
 R bps speed of digital transmission system
 L/R time to transmit the information
 tprop time for signal to propagate across medium
 d distance in meters
 c speed of light (3x108 m/s in vacuum)

Delay = tprop + L/R = d/c + L/R seconds

Use data compression to reduce L

Use higher speed modem to increase R
Place server closer to reduce d
(In many communication systems it is not possible to reduce the distance)
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Example from GSM network
The maximum distance of a GSM mobile telephone
from a base station is 40 km
How long does it take for light to travel 40 km?
Each GSM user transmits 156.25 bits in a 0.577ms time
slot
What is the maximum number bits that can be ‘in
transit’ between a GSM mobile telephone and the base
station?

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Example from GSM network - answer
The maximum distance of a GSM mobile telephone
from a base station is 40 km
 How long does it take for light to travel 40 km?
 Time =(40x103)/(3x108) seconds =13.333x 10-5 seconds
Each GSM user transmits 156.25 bits in a 0.577ms time
slot
 What is the maximum number bits that can be ‘in transit’
between a GSM mobile telephone and the base station?
 Each bit lasts 0.577x10-3/156.25=3.7x10-6 (seconds/bit)

 So approximately = 13.333x 10-5 /3.7x10-6 = 36 bits can be ‘in

transit’
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Compression
Information is usually not represented efficiently
Data compression algorithms
Represent the information using fewer bits
Lossless (or “Noiseless”): original information recovered
exactly
 E.g. zip, compress, GIF, fax
Lossy (or “Noisy”): recover information approximately
 JPEG

 Tradeoff: number of bits versus quality

 Compression Ratio
= Number of bits (original file) / number of bits (compressed file)

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Color
W
ImageW W W
Red Green Blue
Color component component component
H image = H image + H image + H image

Total bits = 3  H  W pixels  B bits/pixel = 3HWB bits

Example: 810 inch picture at 400  400 pixels per inch2

400  400  8  10 = 12.8 million pixels
8 bits/pixel/color
12.8 megapixels  3 bytes/pixel = 38.4 megabytes
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Examples of Block Information

Type Method Format Original Compressed

(Ratio)
Text Zip, ASCII Kbytes- (2-6)
compress Mbytes

Fax CCITT A4 page 256 5-54 kbytes

Group 3 200x100 kbytes (5-50)
pixels/in2
Color JPEG 8x10 in2 photo 38.4 1-8 Mbytes
Image 4002 pixels/in2 Mbytes (5-30)

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Stream Information
A real-time voice signal must be digitized and
transmitted as it is produced
Analog signal level varies continuously in time

Th e s p ee ch s i g n al l e v el v a r ie s w i th t i m(e)

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Digitization of Analog Signal
Sample analog signal in time and amplitude
Find closest approximation
Original signal
Sample value

 Approximation

3 bits / sample







Rs = Bit rate = number of bits/sample x number of samples/second

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Digitization of Analog Signal Cont…
Digitization of Analog Signal Cont…
Digitization of Analog Signal Cont…
Digitization of Analog Signal Cont…
Digitization of Analog Signal Cont…
Bit Rate of Digitized Signal
Bandwidth Ws Hertz: how fast the signal changes
 Higher bandwidth → more frequent samples
 Minimum sampling rate (Nyquist rate)= 2 x Ws

Representation accuracy: range of approximation

error
 Higher accuracy
→ smaller spacing between approximation values
→ more bits per sample

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Bit Rate of Digitized Signal
Nyquist rate
 Effect of sampling at too low a rate = aliasing
 A higher frequency ‘looks’ like (aliases to) a lower frequency

0.8

0.6 Low frequency and

0.4 higher frequency
0.2
have same values
0
at the sample
-0.2

-0.4
values
-0.6

-0.8

-1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
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Example: Voice and Audio
Telephone voice CD Audio
Ws = 4 kHz → 8000 Ws = 22 kHz → 44000
samples/sec samples/sec
8 bits/sample 16 bits/sample
Rs=8 x 8000 = 64 kbps Rs=16 x 44000= 704 kbps
per audio channel
Cellular phones use MP3 uses more powerful
more powerful compression algorithms:
compression algorithms:
50 kbps per audio channel
8-12 kbps

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Video Signal
Sequence of picture frames
 Each picture digitized and
compressed
Frame repetition rate
 10-30-60 frames/second
depending on quality
Frame resolution
 Small frames for
30 fps
videoconferencing
 Standard frames for
conventional broadcast TV
 HDTV frames

Rate = M bits/pixel x (WxH) pixels/frame x F frames/second

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 176
QCIF videoconferencing 144 at 30 frames/sec =
760,000 pixels/sec

720
Broadcast TV at 30 frames/sec =
480
10.4 x 106 pixels/sec

1920
HDTV at 30 frames/sec =

1080 67 x 106 pixels/sec

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Transmission of Stream Information
Constant bit-rate
 Signals such as digitized telephone voice produce a steady
stream: e.g. 64 kbps
 Network must support steady transfer of signal with low
delay (latency), e.g. 64 kbps circuit
Variable bit-rate
 Signals such as digitized video produce a stream that varies
in bit rate, e.g. according to motion and detail in a scene
 Network must support variable transfer rate of signal, e.g.
packet switching or rate-smoothing with constant bit-rate
circuit
 If the video is interactive (e.g. videoconferencing) the
transfer must occur with low delay

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Stream Service Quality Issues
Network Transmission Impairments
Delay: Is information delivered in timely fashion?
Jitter: Is information delivered smoothly enough?
Loss: Is information delivered without loss? If loss
occurs, is delivered signal quality acceptable?
Applications and application layer protocols developed
to deal with these impairments

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Why Digital Communications

Knowledge of basic components of a communication

system
Transmitter (TX), channel, Receiver (RX)
Knowledge of typical channels
Wires, radio, optical fiber
Knowledge of typical impairments
Attenuation, distortion, noise, interference
Understanding of the difference between repeaters
and regenerators

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Transmitter Receiver

Communication channel

Transmitter
Converts information into signal suitable for transmission
Injects energy into communications medium or channel
 Telephone converts voice into electric current
 Modem converts bits into tones
Receiver
Receives energy from medium
Converts received signal into form suitable for delivery to user
 Telephone converts current into voice
 Modem converts tones into bits

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 Typical Representation of Communication
System

Data Data
in Transmitter Receiver out
Channel +
(Tx) (Rx)

Noise

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 Transmitted Received
Transmitter Receiver
Signal Signal

Communication channel

Communication Channel Transmission Impairments

Pair of copper wires  Signal attenuation

Coaxial cable  Signal distortion

Radio  Spurious noise

Light in optical fiber  Interference from other

Light in air signals

Infrared
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Analog Long-Distance Communications
Transmission segment

Source Repeater ... Repeater Destination

Each repeater attempts to restore analog signal to its

original form
Restoration is imperfect
 Distortion is not completely eliminated
 Noise and interference is only partially removed
Signal quality decreases with number of repeaters
Analog communications is distance-limited
Still used in analog cable TV systems
Analogy: Copy a song using a cassette recorder
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Analog transmission: all details must be reproduced accurately

Distortion
Sent Attenuation Received

Digital transmission: only discrete levels need to be reproduced

Sent Distortion Received

Simple Receiver:
Attenuation
Was original pulse
positive or
negative?

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