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Telecom infrastructure.
FM Systems
Frequency Modulation (FM) is a
system of radio transmission in which
the carrier wave is modulated so that its
frequency varies with the audio signal
being transmitted.
Frequency modulation has several
advantages over the system of
amplitude modulation (AM) used in the
alternate form of radio broadcasting.
 Advantages of FM
FM systems have greater freedom from interference
and static. Various electrical disturbances, such as
those caused by thunderstorms and automobile
ignition systems; create amplitude modulated radio
signals that are received as noise by AM receivers.
A well-designed FM receiver is not sensitive to such
disturbances when it is tuned to an FM signal of
sufficient strength.
Also, the signal-to-noise ratio in an FM system is
much higher than that of an AM system.
Frequency-modulation (FM) broadcasting refers
to the transmission of voice and music received
by the general public in the 88- to 108-MHz
frequency band.
The 100 carrier frequencies for FM broadcast
range from 88.1 to 107.9 MHz and are equally
spaced every 200 kHz.
The channels from 88.1 to 91.9 MHz are
reserved for educational and non-commercial
broadcasting and those from 92.1 to 107.9 MHz
for commercial broadcasting.
Each channel has a 200-kHz
bandwidth. The maximum frequency
swing under normal conditions is ±75
kHz.
The carrier frequency is required to be
maintained within ±2000 Hz.
The frequencies used for FM broadcasting
generally limits the coverage to the line-of-
sight or a slightly greater distance.
The actual coverage area is determined by
the
 Effective Radiated Power (ERP) of the
station
the height of the transmitting antenna above
the average terrain in the area.
Either increasing the power or raising the
antenna will increase the coverage area.
In FM broadcast, stations are classified according
to their;
 maximum allowable ERP
 the transmitting antenna height above average
terrain in their service area.
All classes may operate at antenna heights above
those specified but must reduce the ERP
accordingly. Stations may not exceed the
maximum power specified, even if antenna height
is reduced.
The classification of the station determines the
allowable distance to other co-channel and
adjacent channel stations
CLASSIFICATION OF FM
SYSTEMS
FM broadcast antenna systems are required
to have a horizontally polarized component.
Most antenna systems, however, are
circularly polarized, having both horizontal
and vertical components.
The antenna system, which usually consists
of several individual radiating bays fed as a
phased array, has a radiation characteristic
that concentrates the transmitted energy in
the horizontal plane toward the population
to be served, minimizing the radiation out
into space and down toward the ground.
 XDSL TECHNOLOGIES
xDSL is the term for broadband access
technologies based on digital subscriber line
technology.
The ‘x’ signifies that there are different
flavours of DSL.
 It provides an always on high speed data
service over an existing copper wire to a
residential or business facilities.
 DSL ADVANTAGES
The foremost of this is price. The greatest
savings come from the fact that DSL runs on
existing copper lines. This fact alone has
many wonderful consequences. Unlike fiber
optics and other communication lines, no
new cables need to be installed for existing
buildings. By using the existing copper
infrastructure, the capital costs for
upgrading to DSL service is quite low. 
Another advantage is in the way the information
is handled in the network.
 Most DSL systems allow voice transmission
simultaneously with data traffic.
DSL helps carriers reduce congestion on their
voice-switching systems.
The data traffic is directed to a packet-based data
network, while the voice information is sent to
the Public Switch Telephone Network (PSTN).
DSL comes in different types because
people have different needs. Most xDSL
technologies are used to provide internet
access of some sort, but what is needed from
that service varies greatly from case to case.
Eg. Home pc vrs KNUST server.
The various type can be differentiated as a
result of few key differences:
Speed - how much data can be sent or
received in a certain amount of time, speed
Line Coding – how the information is
encoded and sent on the line. There are
many different methods of encoding which
will be discussed as is needed.
Number of Lines – does it require one
twisted pair of wires or two pairs.
Distance Limit (Reach) – how many
feet/meters the signals can reliably travel
 HDSL
HDSL stands for High-bit-rate Digital
Subscriber Line.
 It was first developed in the late 1980’s as
an alternative to T1 standards at the time.
T1 lines were developed and deployed for
high speed data transmission. They are
dedicated lines where there is always a
connection between the end user and the
service provider. A leased T1 line has
customarily been quite expensive.
 HDSL offers an alternative which is just as
HDSL was designed to address many technical
problems that traditional T1 faced.
T1 technology required that the lines be
preconditioned to match specific line
requirements. To meet these line conditions,
special cables had to be used. HDSL was designed
to automatically compensate for line conditions.
Another drawback to T1 technology is that it uses
simplex transmission. Simplex transmission is
where information is sent exclusively in one
direction on a line. Alternatively, HDSL uses
Duplex transmission. Duplex transmission sends
data bi-directionally.
HDSL is designed to run at the same bit rate as a
T1 line (1.544 Mbps) and it uses the same
number of lines, but it can achieve this same bit
rate on less expensive lines over a greater
distance. To do this, it sends a half rate signal
(784 kpbs) on each line.
The method of how symbols are sent across data
lines is called Line Coding.
The Line Code for HDSL is called 2B1Q, which
stands for 2-binary 1-quaternary. 2B1Q is a
4-level code that encodes two bits at one time
 HDSL DISADVANTAGES
The primary disadvantage of HDSL is that it
requires two twisted pairs of wires to operate,
which increases the deployment cost for service
providers.
Also, HDSL does not support Plain Old Telephone
Service (POTS) on the same lines as the data, so
separate phone service is needed if the consumer
wants to speak on the telephone.
Another disadvantage is that HDSL is slightly
slower than some other forms of DSL. But it is
still far superior to analogue transmission.
 ADSL
ADSL is the acronym for Asymmetric Digital Subscriber
Line.
ADSL derives its name from the fact that the data
transfer rates downstream are much faster than the
upstream data rates.
ADSL was originally developed for telephone
companies that wanted to provide video-on demand type
applications. To do this, there would need to be a large
amount of data sent from the company to the consumer,
but very little data would need to be sent back. Since its
first development, the focus for ADSL has switched.
ADSL is well suited for internet browsing
where much more data is sent downstream
than upstream.
The data rate of ADSL is highly dependent
upon the distance from the Central Office
(CO) to the Consumer Premises (CPE).
At a distance of 9000 ft., 8 Mbps downstream
can be achieved while at 18000 ft., only 1.544
Mbps downstream can be achieved. Upstream
speeds max out at 640 kbps and scale down
similarly to the downstream speeds.
ADSL was designed to coexist with a regular
phone line, which operates at frequencies up to
4 kHz.
In order not to interfere with POTS and to
avoid interference from POTS, ADSL operates
at frequencies above 4 kHz, typically from 30
kHz to 1.1 MHz (Upstream is in the range from
30 kHz to 138 kHz, downstream ranges from
138 kHz, to ~1.1 MHz).
Separate frequency bands for voice and data
allow the signals to be individually obtained
using filters. For ADSL these filters are
combined into one central piece of equipment
The POTS splitter takes the signals received
from the service provider and separates
them into two home networks.
One is the regular telephone network that is
installed in most homes and the other
network is the home computer network
which may have one or many computers
connected to it.
There are primarily two different line
coding schemes that are under
consideration,
Discrete Multitone Modulation (DMT)
Carrierless Amplitude Phase Modulation
(CAP).
ADSL is well suited to residential
applications. For large businesses upstream
data rates are often just as important as
downstream which would make ADSL a
poor choice
 G LITE
G.Lite, known as the “Splitterless DSL”, is
a derivative of ADSL technology.
In fact, G.Lite is designed to address the
problems ADSL faces, specifically the need
for complicated hardware that must be
installed by the service provider.
 G.Lite was born from desires to make DSL
consumer installable and it is the home that
is G.Lite’s target market
Vendors of ADSL products quickly realized that
many of the problems ADSL faced could be
easily solved by simply reducing the speed that
the service operated at. For most home users, the
reduction in speed would hardly be noticeable.

G.Lite’s top speed is 1.544 Mbps. Though much

slower than full rate ADSL, this speed reduction
helps to eliminate problems and is still faster
than what the vast majority of users require. The
primary advantage of G.Lite is that it is
consumer installable.
 HDSL-2
HSDL2 as the name implies, is an advanced
form of HDSL. G.SHDSL is a generalized
version of HDSL2.
One of the most prominent problems that the
original HDSL faced was that it required two
twisted pairs of wires to be implemented.
 In HDSL2 the 1.544 Mbps bit rate is preserved,
but a single twisted pair of wires is used. This
helps to drive the cost of a system down.
To achieve the 1.544 Mbps bit rate that is
required, HDSL2 drops the 2B1Q line code
that was previously used and implements a
much more efficient encoding scheme.
This scheme is called Overlapped Pulse
Amplitude Modulated (PAM) Transmission
with Interlocked Spectra, or OPTIS.
Where HDSL did not allow for telephone
service on the same lines, HDSL2 provides
for many voice channels in the data stream
 RADSL
RADSL stands for Rate Adaptive Digital Subscriber Line.
Rate Adaptive simply means that the speed of the
connection is adjusted to meet the line conditions that
each transmit and receive unit sees.
RADSL generally refers to rate adaptive ADSL services,
but other types of DSL may also be rate adaptive.
Rate adaptive services are generally are used to extend
reach of systems to areas that are far from the central
office. By dynamically decreasing or increasing the bit-
rate rate adaptive technology uses the optimal speed for
the line.
 VDSL
VDSL stand for Very high bit-rate Digital
Subscriber Line. Though the standards have
not been completed yet, the speeds
achievable by VDSL are absolutely
astounding. Data rates of 13, 26, or up to 52
Mbps are possible with VDSL!
VDSL is still in its infancy, but right now it
appears that it will be offered in two
varieties, one that is symmetric like HDSL
and another that is asymmetric like ADSL.
Telephone companies would love to extend
their fiber optic backbones closer to
VDSL is poised to help a strategy of fiber-to-the-
neighbourhood (FTTN) or fiber-to-the-curb
(FTTC). In these scenarios a fiber optic cable is
run near a group of customers and VDSL provides
final leg to each individual customer.
 LMDS
LMDS stands for Local Multipoint
Distribution System.
It is used to provide broadband services for a
group o f subscribers clustered together to
form a cell. From one source, data is
distributed to several clients simultaneously.
 It works within the 24-31GHz frequency
rage. It employs TDMA, FDMA and CDMA
multiplexing techniques.
 It provides a high data rate for a short
distance of about 3miles radius. The burst
data rates is about 45Mbps to 311Mbps.
In propagation of signals, receiver must be
in line of sight with the receiver. The
network topology could be point to point or
point to multipoint.
 Benefits

Provides network service to areas with

poor or non existent wired
infrastructure
Lower infrastructure cost compared t
wired and fibre
Faster deployment than laying
cable/fibre
Lower operational cost compared to
wire/fibre
Easy relocation
Applications
Broadband services to large and medium
enterprise
Used to provide high speed bridge to fibre
and infrastructure
 MMDS
MMDS stands for Multichannel
Multipoint Distribution System.
It is used to provide broadband services
to residential and small businesses
where DSL/cable does not exist.
 It works within the 2.5-2.7GHz
frequency rage.
It employs TDMA, FDMA , OFDM
and CDMA multiplexing techniques.
It provides a data rate for a distance of
about 35miles radius. The burst data
rates is about 0.5Mbps to 3.0Mbps.
In propagation of signals, receiver
must be in line of sight with the
receiver. The network topology could
be point to point or point to multipoint.
Summary of LMDS and MMDS features
 GSM
When the acronym GSM was used for the first
time in 1982, it stood for Groupe Spéciale
Mobile, a committee under the umbrella of
Conférence Européenne des Postes et
Télécommunications (CEPT), the European
standardization organization.
The task of GSM was to define a new standard
for mobile communications in the 900 MHz
range. It was decided to use digital technology.
 In the course of time, CEPT evolved into a
new organization, the European
Telecommunications Standard Institute
(ETSI). That, however, did not change the
task of GSM.
The goal of GSM was to replace the purely
national, already overloaded, and thus
expensive technologies of the member
countries with an international standard.
 In1991, the first GSM systems were ready to be
brought into so-called friendly-user operation.
 The meaning of the acronym GSM was changed
that same year to stand for Global System for
Mobile Communications.
The year 1991 also saw the definition of the first
derivative of GSM, the Digital Cellular System
1800 (DCS 1800), which more or less translates
the GSM system into the 1800 MHz frequency
range.
In the United States, DCS 1800 was adapted to
the 1900 MHz band (Personal Communication
System 1900, or PCS 1900). The next phase,
GSM Phase 2, will provide even more end-user
features than phase 1 of GSM did. In 1991,
only “insiders” believed such a success would
be possible because mobile communications
could not be considered a mass market in most
part of Europe.
By 1992, many European countries had
operational networks, and GSM started to
attract interest worldwide. Time has brought
substantial technological progress to the
GSM hardware. GSM has proved to be a
major commercial success for system
manufacturers as well as for network
operators
Like all modern mobile networks, GSM utilizes a
cellular structure.
The basic idea of a cellular network is to partition
the available frequency range, to assign only parts
of that frequency spectrum to any base transceiver
station, and to reduce the range of a base station in
order to reuse the scarce frequencies as often as
possible.
 One of the major goals of network planning. is to
reduce interference between different base stations.
Anyone who starts thinking about possible
alternatives should be reminded that current
mobile networks operate in frequency
ranges where attenuation is substantial. In
particular, for mobile stations with low
power emission, only small distances (less
than 5 km) to a base station are feasible .  
Besides the advantage of reusing frequencies, a
cellular network also comes with the following
disadvantages;
 An increasing number of base stations increases
the cost of infrastructure and access lines.  
 All cellular networks require that, as the mobile
station moves, an active call is handed over from
one cell to another, a process known as
handover.
The network has to be kept informed of the
approximate location of the mobile station, even
without a call in progress, to be able to deliver an
incoming call to that mobile station.  
The second and third items require extensive
communication between the mobile station and the
network, as well as between the various network
elements. That communication is referred to as
signalling and goes far beyond the extent of signalling
that fixed networks use.
The extension of communications requires a cellular
network to be of modular or hierarchical structure. A
single central computer could not process the amount
of information involved.  
Components of GSM network.
A GSM network comprises several
elements:
the mobile station (MS),
 the subscriber identity module (SIM),
the base transceiver station (BTS),
the base station controller (BSC),
the transcoding rate and adaptation unit
(TRAU),
 the mobile services switching center
(MSC),
the home location register (HLR),
the visitor location register (VLR),
the equipment identity register (EIR).
 Together, they form a public land mobile
network (PLMN).
1. Mobile Station
GSM-PLMN contains as many MSs as possible,
available in various styles and power classes. In particular,
the handheld and portable stations need to be
distinguished.
2. Subscriber Identity Module
GSM distinguishes between the identity of the subscriber
and that GSM SIM of the mobile equipment. The SIM
determines the director number and the calls billed to a
subscriber. The SIM is a database on the user side.
 
Physically, it consists of a chip, which
the user must insert into the GSM
telephone before it can be used. To
make its handling easier, the SIM has
the format of a credit card or is inserted
as a plug-in SIM. The SIM
communicates directly with the VLR
and indirectly with the HLR.
3 Base Transceiver Station
A large number of BTSs take care of
the radio-related tasks and provide the
connectivity between the network and
the mobile station via the Air-interface.
4 Base Station Controller
The BTSs of an area (e.g., the size of a medium-
size town) are connected to the BSC via an
interface called the Abis-interface. The GSM
Networks: Protocols, Terminology, and
Implementation BSC takes care of all the central
functions and the control of the subsystem,
referred to as the base station subsystem (BSS).
The BSS comprises the BSC itself and the
connected BTSs.
Transcoding Rate and Adaptive Unit

One of the most important aspects of a mobile

network is the effectiveness with which it uses
the available frequency resources.
Effectiveness in this case addresses how many
calls can be made by using a certain TRAU
bandwidth, which in turn translates into the
necessity to compress data, at least over the
Air-interface.
In a GSM system, data compression is
performed in both the MS and the
TRAU. From the architecture
perspective, the TRAU is part of the
BSS. An appropriate graphical
representation of the TRAU is a black
box or, more symbolically, a clamp
7 Home Location Register
The MSC is only one sub-center of a GSM
network. Another sub-center is the HLR, a
repository that stores the data of a large
number of HLR subscribers. An HLR can be
regarded as a large database that administers
the data of literally hundreds of thousands of
subscribers. Every PLMN requires at least
one HLR.  
8 Visitor Location Register
The VLR was devised so that the HLR
would not be overloaded with inquiries on
data about its subscribers. Like the HLR, a
VLR contains VLR subscriber data, but only
part of the data in the HLR and only while
the particular subscriber roams in the area
for which the VLR is responsible. When the
subscriber moves out of the VLR area, the
HLR requests removal of the data related to
a subscriber from the VLR. The geographic
area of the VLR consists of the total area
covered by those BTSs that are related to the
 Equipment Identity Register
The theft of GSM mobile telephones seems attractive,
since the identities of subscribers and their mobile
equipment are separate. Stolen EIR equipment can be
reused simply by using any valid SIM. Barring of a
subscriber by the operator does not bar the mobile
equipment. To prevent that kind of misuse, every GSM
terminal equipment contains a unique identifier, the
international mobile equipment identity (IMEI).
It lies within the realm of responsibilities of a network
operator to equip the PLNM with an additional
database, the EIR, in which stolen equipment is
registered and so can be used to bar fraudulent calls and
even, theoretically, to track down a thief (by analyzing
the related SIM data).
 MASTS AND TOWERS
Mast and towers hold telecommunication
infrastructure which need to be elevated from the
ground in place. Careful thought must be given
to their construction so their operation does not
bring about any environmental or health hazard
to the people in the locality. In this chapter we
look at what the key considerations must be as
far as the construction of mast and towers are
concerned and proceed to treat the design of
masts and towers.
 1. Preliminary research
 The location of the site must be established
in an early stage as site cost can vary
considerably from site to site.
2. Maps:
1:50000 survey maps provide sufficient
topographical information to
Estimate the height of all antennas required
Assess the length and slope of any access
track that are to be established.
Show possible traffic restrictions and the
nearest main road to the site
 Site access:
However detailed the preliminary research has
been it is important to walk the site. The access
route from the nearest main road must be checked
for bridges, weight restrictions, tight corners,
steep hills etc. The type of vehicles requesting
access to the site will depend on the construction
and operation.
Local knowledge:
It is extremely helpful to the project if those
undertaking the survey can meet the local land
owners and tenures to ensure boundary marks or
access routes are acceptable to all.
 
Surveys
Topographical survey: a detailed topographical survey of
the site should be undertaken either to check values or update
the existing site plan. The resulting site plan will enable the
planners and engineers not having visited the site to contribute
to the work. The plan should be drawn to scale not smaller
than 1:500 so that details such as boundaries, buildings or
structures, overhead and underground services and street
furniture can be clearly mapped. Contours, maps and spot
heights and coordinates of control points should be given.

6 Approvals
The local planning authority will generally require seeing
the site plan. The scale is 1:200 and an elevation of the
proposed structure showing the antenna configuration
intended. It must be clearly established what type, size, weight
and bearing is planned for each antenna.
Structures
It may be a simple wooden pole or a tall
guided mast but the principle in selection
remains the same. The following must be
observed as far as the structure is
concerned.
The structure must:
1) Be strong enough to withstand
Maximum design wind speed with
specified antenna loading
Specified wind and icing conditions
with that of antenna loading
1) Be safe to be climbed by staff trained to do
so
2) Be maintained for its lifespan
3) Not impose unacceptable physical
conditions on the locality.
 Poles
Cylindrical poles of wood, steel and
aluminium can support light antennas up to
a maximum height of approximately 17m in
low wind speed areas. They rely on their
bases being buried at sufficient depth to the
ground to stabilize them. Access is normally
from a removable ladder with step bolts
over top section.
 Towers
Self supporting towers can vary in height
from 10 to 300m. The ratio of tower height
to the base width of the section under
consideration should be 8:1 over the top
40m whiles carrying omnidirectional UHF
antennas and microwave dishes. For all
other structures the ratio should not exceed
10:1
 Masts
Guided masts vary in height from 10m to some
of the world’s strongest buildings. The mast
column will be supported at various levels by
sets of tension stays. The ratio of the height
between stay level and the height of the
column should not exceed 40:1. The normal
stay arrangement are for 3 stay lanes 120o apart
for triangular mast and 4 stays lines 90o apart
for square mast column. These stays will be
anchored to foundations so that vertical angle
between the stay and ground plane is about 300
and 60o respectively.
 • Roof mounted structures
These are potentially the easiest and cheapest to
utilize. However, they have the reputation of being
time consuming projects and prone to problems.
Access to the pole, mast or towers silos will either be
up the phase of the building or via the stairs.
Existing structures
Where it is possible to utilize an existing structure:
the antenna and feeder type, their location and
method of attachment should be agreed and approved
by the owner prior to installation. This may take
additional time but can prevent unnecessary cost due
to misunderstanding unacceptable details.
Number of lights
(N)= Y (meters)/45
Light spacing=X
=Y/N≤ 45m
Band spacing=
Z= Y/7 (9, 11, etc) ≤ 30m
 DIGITAL TELEVISION
Introduction
At present there is huge interest in digital
television (DTV). As we enter the twenty first
century, digital television is considered an
integral part of the information superhighway that
is being built for the new millennium. This is
because digital television can deliver vast
amounts of information at very low cost to the
maximum number of viewers, it can now be fully
integrated into completely digital transmission
networks, and it can be packaged as never before.
Digital Television is extremely flexible in how it treats
information. Television signals, which in analog
format require dedicated circuits, can in digital format
be mixed (integrated) with telephone conversations
and computer data and then transmitted over
telecommunication networks to distant broadcasting
sites. Programs can be stored on computer hard discs
and retrieved instantly for broadcast to a single viewer
on demand. The delivery of multimedia material
(audio, video, and data) in digital format to the
consumer creates the opportunity to store content
using inexpensive personal computer-based
technology
Some milestones in the development of
DTV
Digital Television Organizations
MPEG (Moving Pictures Expert Group)
MHEG (Multimedia/Hypermedia Expert Group)
DVB (Digital Video Broadcasting) project
DAVIC (Digital Audio-Visual Council)
EBU (European Broadcasting Union)
ITU (International Telecommunication Union)
ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute)
ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
ATSC (Advanced Television System Committee)
IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission)
ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
Digitag (Digital Terrestrial Television Action Group)
DTG (U.K. Digital TV group)
CENELEC (European Committee for standardization)
DiBEG (Japanese Digital Broadcasting Experts Group)
MPEG
The Moving Picture Experts Group is a working group
of ISO/IEC in charge of the development of
international standards for compression,
decompression, processing, and coded representation
of moving pictures, audio and their combination. It is a
subgroup of a joint ISO/IEC technical committee that
is standardizing information technology related
equipment, MPEG has produced standards including:
MPEG-1 a standard for the storage and retrieval of
moving pictures and audio on digital storage media.
MPEG-2 a standard for digital television broadcasting
Two more standards have been developed:
MPEG-4 a standard for multimedia applications.
MPEG-7 an Audio-Visual content representation
standard for fast information searching and retrieval.
MHEG

The Multimedia/Hypermedia Expert Group is another

working group under the same subcommittee that
features MPEG. MHEG targets coding of multimedia
and hypermedia information, and defines an
interchange format for composite multimedia contents.
The defined MHEG format encapsulates a multimedia
document, as communication takes place in a specific
data structure.
DVB
The Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) project comprises a group of
more than 200 organizations from more than 25 different countries
working together to establish the technical framework for the
introduction of digital broadcasting systems. DVB has already
established many European standards that have been ratified by
ETSI, CENELEC, and the ITU, these include:
DVB-T Terrestrial television transmission standard
DVB-C Cable television transmission standard
DVB-S Satellite television transmission standard
DVB-SI Specification for service information
DVB-CS SMATV (Satellite Master Antenna Television) transmission
standard
DVB-TXT Teletext transport specification
DVB is working on other standards including:
DVB-TRC The digital terrestrial return channel
DVB-MHP The digital multimedia home platform
DVB-MC The digital Microwave Multipoint
Distribution System (MMDS) below 10 GHz (the
more commonly used system is at 2.5.2.7 GHz)
DVB-MS The digital microwave multipoint
distribution system (MMDS) above 10 GHz
DVB-CI The DVB common interface for use in
conditional access (CA)
 Benefits of Digital Broadcasting
Higher Spectrum Efficiency
as shown
Better Picture quality
Clearer Sound (CD quality
audio)
More Stations and therefore
more choice
More Interactivity
(including electronic
programming guides (EPG),
games, etc)
The Terrestrial Digital TV Broadcasting Model
Network Service Multiplex Operator Content Provider
Operator • entity that compiles, • A service participant
• entity that operates operates and markets a on a digital broadcast
networks and content offering on a multiplex that
transmitters and digital multiplex and contributes to the
distributes signals that decides on the CA content offering in that
associated with a SMS to be used. multiplex whether
multiplex
Market Structure
Content Producer
Multiplex Operator
IRD
ENCODERS

M
S U
ENCODERS
T X Modulator
U
D
I ENCODERS
O

Scheduler
CA SYSTEM

Billing
System

TCP/IP LAN or WAN

Subscriber
Management
System
Field Measurements of DTT Signals

Source: Z Technologies