RESPIRATORY APPARATUS AND PHYSICAL

PRINCIPLES OF GAS EXCHANGE

OBJECTIVES
what is respiration?
the structures associated,
basics of gaseous transport and 
terms related to capacity of lung during
various phases.
• RESPIRATORY TRACT
• It is the conducting portion or airway consists
of nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles.
• Pharynx is a common passageway for air and
food.
• The opening from the pharynx leading to the
continuation of the airway is the larynx, the
organ of phonation (sound production) in
mammals.
• It is produced by the controlled passage which
causes vibration of vocal cords of larynx.
• The organ of phonation in birds called the syrinx
which is located at the junction where trachea
divides into bronchi.
• The glottis is the slit-like opening between the
vocal cords.
• Extending cranial from the larynx is the
epiglottis.
• It is a leaf shaped plate of cartilage covered
with mucous membrane.
• It is located at the root of the tongue, which is
passively bent over the larynx during the act of
swallowing, thereby preventing the entrance of
food into the trachea.
TRACHEA:
• The lungs are paired organs located within the
thorax.
• In general, the left and right lungs have two
and four lobes, respectively. 
• Trachea is the primary passageway of air to the
lungs.
• It is located between larynx and bronchi.
• The tracheal wall contains cartilaginous rings to
prevent collapse of the tracheal airway.
• Each tracheal ring is incomplete (not joined
dorsally), which permits variations in diameter by
the tracheal smooth muscle.
• The right and left bronchi and their subdivisions
(bronchioles) continue all the way to the alveoli.
• The walls of the airways into the alveoli, particularly
the bronchioles, create resistance to airflow.
• The larger the diameter of the airway, less the resistance
to airflow.
• The diameter of the airways can be altered by the degree
of contraction of the smooth muscle in these airways.
• Stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system
causes relaxation of these walls, which allows
air to more readily enter the lungs.
• The respiratory portion is the site of gas
exchange between the air and blood and
consists of the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar
ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli.
• This extensive branching of the respiratory
channels is called the bronchial tree.
• The alveoli are thin-walled sacs where gaseous
exchange occurs.
• PLEURAL MEMBRANES:
• The lungs are surrounded by a serous membrane
called as pleural membrane.
• The superficial layer lining the thoracic cavity is the
parietal pleura and the layer closely adhering to the
lungs is the visceral pleura.
• The narrow parietal space between these two layers
contains a small amount of pleural fluid that allows
the two layers to slide over one another during
breathing.
• The lungs have an almost friction-free movement
within the thorax because of the pleura. Inflammation
of the pleural membrane is called pleurisy.
• After the first breath, the lungs become less dense.
• If the lung floats in water, it indicates that the animal
took at least one breath, and therefore was born alive.
• This fact allows one to determine whether a newborn
animal is stillborn or not.
• The pressure inside the intrapleural space is negative
due to continuous removal of fluid that is secreted .
• This negative pressure is vital for the expansion of the
lungs.
• If an injury to the chest wall punctures the pleural
membrane, it can allow air to enter the intrapleural
space, resulting in a condition called as
"pneumothorax".
• ALVEOLUS:
• The pulmonary alveoli are the principal sites
of gas diffusion between the air and blood.
• The separation of air and blood, and thus the
diffusion distance, is minimal at the alveolar
level.
• The alveolar epithelium and the capillary
endothelium are intimately associated. Different
cells are seen, such as,
– Type I alveolar cells, predominant, which are simple
squamous epithelium and the main site of gas
exchange.
– Type II alveolar (or septal) cells, cuboidal epithelial
cells containing microvilli that secrete alveolar fluid
containing surfactant. 
– Alveolar macrophages remove debris from the
lungs.
– Fibroblasts produce elastic fibres.
• RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE:
• The respiratory membrane is where O2 and CO2 diffuse
across the alveolar and capillary walls.
• It is a very thin membrane about 0.5 µm thick and consists of
four layers.
• Exchange between alveoli and capillaries.
• Gas moving from alveolus to blood must pass through: 
– Thin layer of pulmonary surfactant
– Alveolar epithelium : A layer of type I and type II alveolar cells, and
alveolar macrophages.
– The epithelial basement membrane.
– The capillary basement membrane.
– Capillary endothelium
– Plasma
– Red blood cell membrane
– Red blood cell to reach haemoglobin
• The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood, while
oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium via the
pulmonary veins.
• The darker purple colour of venous blood becomes
bright red arterial blood during the saturation of
haemoglobin with oxygen that has freshly diffused from
the alveoli. 
• During exercise, cardiac output can increase by as much
as eightfold.
• During this time, blood flow to the lungs must increase.
• Pulmonary blood vessels dilate.
• In the horse, pulmonary arterial pressure can be so high
as to cause erythrocytes to leak from pulmonary
capillaries, a condition called as exercise-induced
pulmonary haemorrhage, in athletic horses.
• Pulmonary ventilation:
– Respiration, the process of gaseous
exchange, occurs in three steps:
• Pulmonary ventilation, or breathing, is the
mechanical movement of air into (inspiration)
and out (expiration) of the lungs.
• External respiration is the exchange of gases
between the lungs and the pulmonary
capillaries, which occurs across the respiratory
membrane. The blood gains O2 and loses CO2.
• Internal respiration is the exchange of gases
between systemic capillaries and tissue. The
blood gains CO2 and loses O2.
• PULMONARY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES:
• Pulmonary volumes and capacities are recorded by Spirometer.
• The recordings are known as Spirogram.
• It shows the following:
– Tidal Volume (VT):
– The volume of air entering or leaving the nose or mouth per
breath. 
– It accounts 70% of the total lung capacity.
– If an animal inhales more forcefully, it can increase the
volume of air entering the lungs above normal tidal volume.
– Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV):
– The volume of gas inhaled into the lungs during a maximal
forced inspiration starting at the end of a normal tidal
inspiration.
– Residual Volume (RV):
– The volume of gas left in the lungs after a maximal
forced expiration.
– Determined by the force generated by the muscles of
expiration and the inward elastic recoil of the lungs as
they oppose the outward elastic recoil of the chest wall.
– Dynamic compression of the airways during the forced
expiratory effort is also an important determinant of
the residual volume - as airway collapse occurs gas is
trapped in the alveoli.
– Total Lung Capacity (TLC) - the volume of air in the
lungs after a maximal inspiratory effort.
– Determined by the strength of contraction of the
inspiratory muscles in opposition to the inward elastic
recoil of the lungs and chest wall.
– Inspiratory Capacity (IC) :
– The volume of air inhaled into the lungs
during a maximal inspiratory effort that
begins at the end of a normal tidal
expiration.

– Functional Residual Capacity (FRC):

– The volume of gas remaining in the lungs at
the end of a normal tidal expiration.
– Balance point between the inward elastic
recoil of the lungs and the outward elastic
recoil of the chest wall.
– Vital Capacity (VC):
– The volume of air expelled from the lungs
during a maximal forced expiration starting
after a maximal forced inspiration.
– About 4.5 liters.

– Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV):

– The volume of gas expelled from the lungs
during a maximal forced expiration that starts
at the end of normal tidal expiration.
•GAS LAWS:

•Avogadro's hypothesis:
–Equal volumes of different gases at equal temperature contain the same
number of molecules.
–Equal numbers of molecules in the same volumes at the same
temperature will exert the same pressure.
–e. g. (One mole of any gas will contain 6.02x1023 molecules and will
occupy a volume of 22.4 L at a temperature of 0°C and a pressure of
760 mmHg.)
 
•Dalton's law:
–In a gas mixture, the pressure exerted by each individual gas in a space
is independent of the pressures of other gases in the mixture.
–e.g. PAlv = PH2O + PO2 + PCO2 + PN2
Partial Pressure of O2= %O2 content  X Total partial pressure
 
• Boyle's Law:
• P1V1 = P2V2 (at constant temperature) i.e. at constant temperature
pressure of the gas varies inversely with its volume.

• Charles' law or Gay-Lussac's Law:

– V1/V2=T1/T2
– P1/P2=T1/T2
– i.e. at constant pressure the volume of given mass of the gas
increases by 1/273 of its volume at zero degree rise in temperature.
 
• Henry's Law :

– The weight of a gas absorbed by a liquid with which it does not

combine chemically is directly proportional to the pressure of the
gas to which the liquid is exposed (and its solubility in the liquid).
• Graham's Law :
– The rate of diffusion of a gas (through the gas phase) is inversely
proportional to the square root of its molecular weight.

• Diffusion :
– All gas moves across the blood-gas interface by passive diffusion;
that is, net movement is from an area of high partial pressure to
low.
– Gases will dissolve in body fluids more readily if they have a
greater partial pressure and solubility coefficient.
– The solubility coefficient of CO2 is 24 times higher than that of O2.
– Therefore, CO2 dissolves in blood more readily than O2.
– In contrast, the solubility of nitrogen is very low, so even though
atmospheric air has 79% N2, it has no effect on body functions.
• Diffusion of O2 and CO2 obey Fick's Law :
– Rate of diffusion or flow of a gas is directly propotional to
A X D X (P1-P2)/T
– where: A = area , T = thickness, D = diffusivity, P1-P2 = partial pressure
gradient
– The volume of gas per unit of time moving across a tissue sheet is directly
proportional to the surface area of the sheet, the diffusibility, and the
difference in gas concentration between the two sides, but is inversely
proportional to the tissue thickness.
– The surface area is in several square meters depends upon size of the lung.
The thickness is generally ½ micron. This large surface area and small
thickness are excellent for diffusion.

• Diffusivity or Diffusion constant :

– D = Solubility / Squreroot of Mol. Wt. 
– CO2 diffuses about 20% slower because of its molecular weight but 24 times
faster due to its greater solubility.
– Therefore the diffusivity of CO2 is about 20 times that of O2.
• Dalton's law:
– Dalton's law states that each gas within a mixture exerts
its own pressure independent of the other gases present.,
– Atmospheric air is a combination of nitrogen (N2),oxygen
(O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and water vapour. At sea level,
atmospheric pressure is 760 mmHg.
– Atmospheric air is 78.6% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.04%
carbon dioxide, 0.06% other gases, and varying water
vapour, depending on the humidity.
– PH2O presence would cause a dilution of the other gases,
and thus their partial pressures would be lowered to
maintain the total pressure at 760 mm Hg. 
– The ventilation process does not evacuate the alveoli
completely with each breath, but rather it is a gradual
replenishment and evacuation
• The approximate composition of alveolar air
can be
– PO2    = 104 mm Hg 
– PCO2    = 40 mm Hg
– PN2    = 569 mm Hg 
– PH2O    = 47 mm Hg
– Total   = 760 mmHg
• All the components are diluted by water vapor, which is
equal to 47 mm Hg in the alveolar air.
• PH2O = 47 mm Hg represents 100% humidification of
alveolar air at body temperature.
• The PO2 is lower and the PCO2 is higher than their
respective atmospheric pressures because oxygen is
continually diffusing from alveolar air to the tissues (where
it is used) and CO2 is continually diffusing from the tissues
(where it is produced) to the alveolar air (where it is
expelled).
• The PN2 of alveolar air is lower than its value in atmospheric
air primarily because of its dilution by water vapour.
• Altitude - air pressure at 10,000 ft = 563 mm Hg
 
• Henry's law :
– Henry's law states that the quantity of a gas that
will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to its partial
pressure and its solubility coefficient.
Pulmonary Volumes
• Tidal Volume – normal volume of
air expired or inspired each normal
breath.

• Inspiratory Reserve – the extra

volume above the tidal volume.

• Expiratory Reserve – The maximum

volume of air that can be expired.

• Residual Volume – The volume of

air remaining in the lungs after
maximum expiration.
Pulmonary Capacities
• Inspiratory capacity is the tidal
volume + the inspiratory
reserve.

• Functional residual capacity is

the expiratory reserve + residual
volume.

• Vital capacity is the inspiratory

reserve + tidal volume +
expiratory reserve.

• Total lung capacity is the vital

capacity + residual volume.
 Minute Respiratory Volume
• This is the total amount of new air moved into
the respiratory passages each minute.
• It equals the tidal volume X respiratory
rate/min.
• Normally, this is ~ 500 ml X 12 breaths/min ~
6L/min.
 Alveolar Ventilation
• The key area to bring new air in is to the
alveoli, where gas exchange occurs with the
pulmonary blood.
• Air that does not reach the gas exchange areas
is called “dead space air”.
• The normal amount of dead space air in a
young adult male ~ 150 ml.
 Alveolar Ventilation
• Alveolar ventilation per minute is determined as
follows:

• Where,
VA = vol of alveolar ventilation/min
Freq = rate of respiration/min
VT = Tidal volume
VD = dead space volume