CS 453

LECTURE 3

BIOTIC FACTORS
AFFECTING INSECTS
 ASSIGNMENT
• Explain autecology and synecology, and point out
the main differences between the two.

• (Not more than 2 A-4 pages long, Times New

Roman 12)

• DUE DATE: Wednesday, April. 13, 2022.

BIOTIC FACTORS AFFECTING INSECTS
• Several biotic factors individually or
combined impact insects

• Determine fate of individual or pop.

• Include:
– FOOD
– SHELTER
– NATURAL ENEMIES
– MAN.
FOOD IN THE LIFE OF INSECTS

• Food very essential for insect:

–Survival
–Reproduction
–(Rate of) Development
–Longevity
–Dispersal.
FOOD IN THE LIFE OF INSECTS
Insects are either:
• Phytophagous
• Zoophagous or
• Saprophagous.

• Very few are facultative

– e.g. Conocephalus longipennis
(Orthoptera: Tettigonidae).
– Phytophagous and Zoophagous
 PHYTOPHAGY
• All parts from root to fruit utilised e.g.
Orthoptera, Hemiptera and Lepidoptera

• A particular insect may:

– feed on all parts of same plant e.g.
termite on maize plant

– utilise all aerial parts of same plant e.g.

Maruca vitrata on cowpea stems, leaves,
terminal buds, peduncles and pods.
 PHYTOPHAGY …
• An insect species may:
–utilise only one part of plant e.g. bees
on flower, Sitophilus spp. on grain.

–induce parts to form galls and

dwell/feed in them e.g. African rice
gall midge, Orseolia oryzivora
(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), gall aphids.
 PHYTOPHAGY …
• 3 main types:
1.Polyphytophagy: Feeding on any
suitable plant available e.g.
Schistocerca gregaria, Z. variegatus.

2.Oligophytophagy: Feed on small

number of plants e.g. spotted stem
borer Chilo spp. Feeding on cultivated
cereals
 PHYTOPHAGY …
• 3 main types:

3. Monophytophagy: Utilise one food

plant only e.g. Pareuchaetes
pseudoinsulata feeds on Chromolaena
odorata (Acheampong weed) only
 ZOOPHAGY
• Utilising animals as food resource

• Predatory and parasitic insects

(including parasitoids).

• Feeding on insects = ENTOMOPHAGY

• Formerly insects feeding only on insects

CHARACTERISTICS OF PREDATORY INSECTS
1. Mostly Capture prey by:
a. swooping (dragonflies)

b. pouncing (preying mantids)

c. trapping (antlion larvae)

d. Injecting poison to kill/paralyse prey

(assassin bugs).
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
PREDATORY INSECTS …

2. Devour prey quickly thru biting and

chewing (e.g. mantids, carabids)

3.Capture, hold and pierce and inject

prey with toxic and digestive saliva and
suck them dry (assassin bugs).
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
PREDATORY INSECTS …

4. Predator usually larger than or equal

in size to prey.

5.Predator rarely smaller, if so, hunt in

groups (ants).
 MORPHOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS FOR
PREDATION

1. Cryptic coloration (aggressive

Peckamian mimicry) for concealment
e.g. preying mantis.

2. Prehensile (grabbing) jaws

e.g. Ant lions, ground hunting beetles,
Tiger beetles.
 MORPHOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS FOR
PREDATION …

3. Raptorial
forelegs armed
with spines for
firm grip e.g.
preying mantis,
robber flies.
 MORPHOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS FOR
PREDATION …

4. Well developed fore- and hind wings

for speed and manoeuvrability
–e.g. robber flies, dragonflies.

5. Strong mandibles for chewing e.g.

Carabids
 MORPHOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS FOR
PREDATION …
6. Large bulging eyes
e.g. preying mantis

7. 2700 rotation of
head to locate prey
e.g., dragonflies.
 MORPHOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS FOR
PREDATION …

8. Piercing and sucking mouthparts

e.g. assassin bugs.

9. External digestion of prey before

sucking e.g. assassin bugs, (spiders)
 INSECT PARASITISM

• Parasites live on or near food source

(host).

• Host suffers loss of nutrients and or ill

health

• Parasites do not kill host quickly (WHY?)

 INSECT PARASITISM …

• Parasites may kill host ultimately

• Host death depends on:

–number of parasites on host (severity
of infestation)
–Other (secondary) pests on host
 INSECT PARASITISM …

• Two groups of insect parasites in terms

of food acquisition or location on host:

–ECTOPARASITES

–ENDOPARASITES
 ECTOPARASITES
• Live entirely on external surface of host

• Derive all or part of nutriment from host

• Some are host specific, others general

• Some visit host only to feed but may be

living in host vicinity e.g. mosquitoes,
bed bug (Cimex rotundatus).
 ECTOPARASITES …
• Ectoparasitic insects feed mostly on
vertebrate hosts e.g.
–Sucking lice (Anoplura)
–Body lice Pediculus humanus (var.
capitis and corporis)
–Chewing lice (Mallophaga)
–Fleas (Siphonaptera)
–Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae)
 ENDOPARASITIC INSECTS
• Live and feed within host

• Parasitize vertebrates/other arthropods

• Insect Parasites of Vertebrates are

mostly Diptera e.g. Screw worm fly
(Cochliomyia hominivorax)
– Larvae (maggots) develop in open wounds
or nasal cavity of host
 ENDOPARASITIC INSECTS …
• Endoparasitic insects of other insects =
PARASITOIDS

• ORIGINAL DEFINITION: An insect whose

pre-adult stages develop within another
insect

• Current definition includes all insect

parasites (both exo and endo) of insects
 ENDOPARASITIC INSECTS …

• Parasitoids found mostly among

Hymenoptera e.g.
– Families: Ichneumonidae, Chalcidae,
Braconidae

• Also Diptera Family: Tachinidae

 ENDOPARASITIC INSECTS …
• Many are host-specific

• Some lay eggs externally on host but

young larva penetrates integument into
body of host e.g. Tricopod sp.
(Tachinidae) on Nezara viridula

• Host usually killed at time of pupation

of parasite
 SUPERPARASITISM
• More than one larva of same species
developing in a host

• i.e. host attacked more than once by same

insect or species of parasitoid
 HYPERPARASITISM
• “Parasite” serving as host for another
parasite. e.g. Female Anopheles
infected (parasitized) by Plasmodium.

OR
• Parasitoid larva parasitized within host
–e.g. Chalcid larva growing inside
tachnid larva or cocoon within
Lepidopteran larva.
 HYPERPARASITISM …
• Horogenes plutellae on Plutella xylostella
• Spilochalcis flavopicta = hyperparasitic
on H. plutellae within P. xylostella

• Host = Plutella xylostella

• Parasite of host = H. plutellae
• Hyperparasite = S. flavopicta
 MULTIPARASITISM
• Also called CO-INFECTION

• Occurs when host parasitized by more

than one species of endo-parasite

• e.g. one larva being parasitized by

Cotesia sp. and Hyposoter sp.
 ENDOPARASITIC INSECTS
NB: Parasites only using hosts basically
as:

1.Food, and

2.Means of propagation/perpetuation
 SAPROPHAGY
• Living on dead and decaying matter

• All developmental stages – except egg –

may feed on putrefying material

• Includes carrion feeders

–e.g. dung beetles