CS:457

FIELD EXPERIMENTATION
LECTURER
Prof. Joseph Sarkodie-Addo

Telephone :0244576813

Email : jaddosak@yahoo.com

TA’s
* IKe (Postgraduate Assistance)-0501542625 (WhatsApp only)

* Elijah Agene 0503416681 (whatsApp)

 EXPERIMENTATION
•This is the process of carrying out an experiment. But a scientific
procedure undertaken to make a discovery, test a hypothesis or
demonstrate a known fact is known as an experiment.

EXPERIMENT
•An experiment is a scientific investigation conducted to obtain a
solution to a problem, to find the cause of the occurrence of an event, or
to provide a better way of doing things.
 PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENT
In which case, real solution is expected but it gives an indication for
the next level of study.

CRITICAL
This is where the lead or results obtained at the previous level is
subjected to a closer and more critical study in order to arrive at the
possible solution to the problem.
 DEMONSTRATIONAL
This is where after a new technology or the solution gotten or
obtained is shared with relevant stakeholders so that they can
adopt to improve their situation.

These types of experiments are set up at research stations or

farmers field with the farmers involvement from beginning to the
end.
 ON – STATION EXPERIMENT
These are experiments conducted at the research station.

FIELD EXPERIMENT
These are conducted on open lands where conditions are
difficult to control.
 CONTROLLED CONDITION EXPERIMENT
These are conducted in the greenhouse or glasshouse, where
conditions can be manipulated to achieve better results.
TREATMENT.
This is the procedure whose effect is investigated during
experimentation.
E.g there can be different levels of the same factor or different
factors.
Choice of treatment must be scientific and must be randomly
applied to the experimental material.
NB. The most important fact of experimentation is objectivity.
 POPULATION
This is the total number of individuals. Whereas a part of the
population is called a sample.
For the information on the sample to be correctly applied, it must
be
• Large enough
• Random
MEAN
This is the of a data set which is obtained by summing the
individual data set and dividing by the total number of
individuals
 MODE
The frequently occurring figure in the data after arranging the
figure in ascending order.

MEDIAN
This is the central placed figure after arranging the data in an
ascending order. When the data set is an even number, we add
the 2 figures in the middle and divide it by 2.
 VARIATION
This is the measure of the dispersion variability of a data set on
the greater the variance, the less reliable the data appears.
This is calculated by summing the square of the deviations, the
mean and dividing by the number of observations.

STANDARD DEVIATION
This is a measure of variation which is calculated by finding the
square root of the variance.
The ff a
 
 EXPERIMENTAL MATERIAL
This is the substance to which the treatment is applied.

EXPERIMENTAL UNIT
This is the portion of the experimental material of which data are
taken or measured.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
This is the outcome of the experimental procedure.
Note that in some cases, we can have negative or positive
results.
 EXPERIMENTAL ERROR
This is variation that cannot be ascribed to any particular
source.
NB
All experiments are supposed to have errors. But the lower the
error level, the more precise the results.
RANDOMIZATION
This is the process of giving every member of the population
on equal chance to be selected.
 STANDARD ERROR
This is obtained by dividing the standard deviation by the square
root of the number of the variability of the data set.

CO-EFFICIENT OF VARIATION
It is obtained by dividing standard deviation by the mean.
 
 
 
Ensuring accuracy in scientific experimentation
• Proper randomization is by giving each number of the population -
sample equal chance of been selected. It cuts across the entire
experiment.
• Select sensible treatment. Make sure your treatment is sensible.
• Refine experiment design. Split plot design is used when a factor is
more important than the other. Factorial designs allow researchers to
look at how multiple factors can affect a dependent variable that is
knowing more than one independent variable.
NB: it is used when there are more than 2 levels of each factor. Refining
your experimental design is all about changing.
• Increase number of replications on blocks.
Normally, people use 4,3 and 5 replications. Tuber size, interaction
of growth media, this will help you get accurate results.
• Be as objective as possible. You cannot estimate a false size of a
certain plant.
Example: one estimating cowpea to grow more than 4m is
impossible.
NB: when you get negative results, find scientific explanations
to back up your reason.
 CONDUCTING AND REPORTING UNDERGRADUATE PROJECT
WORK.
1. Settle with supervisor what you will do
2. Nature of project- field, pot, laboratory etc.
3. Choose the best site and prepare land or chemicals etc.
4. Pegging and demarcation of plots
5. Planting. All plots or rep by rep.
6. Initial soil sample analysis.
7. Data – what data to measure?(All possible and relevant. Settle on data before
experiment).
8. Take data at times appointed. Objectiveness supreme.
9. Recording data
 Field note book
 Pen drive
 Laptops
10. Data analysis – ANOVA, other statistical packages.

11. Data presentation

• Tables
• Charts
• Graphs
• Frequency tables.
12.Location of data, statistical application.
13. Discussion of data reference
14.Conclusion of report and recommendation
15.Abstract
16.References.
• DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS
These designs has been used over a longer period in scientific
experimentation. In most biological experiments, one of these
designs will have to be used so that the results can be
scientifically interpreted and presented well. It must be noted that
in every situation, only one of the designs is applicable and
therefore it is required of the experimenter to find the design that
is applicable to his or her situation.
NB: every experiment requires one design find it and use it.
COMPLETELY RANDOMIZED DESIGN (CRD)
It is the simplest among all the designs yet is very powerful and
sensitive when used under the required condition. It is the best, and
the only design that must be used when the experimental material is
homogenous.
Thus when you suspect or believe that there is variation in the
experimental material. Mostly, in the experiments conducted under
controlled conditions, the CRD design is the only applicable one to
use. In CRD, the number of replications (the number of times the
treatment occur in the blocks) can either be the same or vary.
Calculating the missing data is not very difficult.
Model yi = µ + T1 + Ei
(Sum of pop. mean)+ (treatment effect) + (error)

Where Yi = measurement
µ = sum of population mean
Ei = error
Ti = Treatment
We say that in all the design, the population mean is so large that we
cannot measure it, so it is always represented with zero (0)
Writing the model of CRD design means state the formula don’t just
write 0.
 TYPICAL CRD ANOVA TABLE
Source df ss ms F

TMS /
Treatment t–1 ∑Ti2 / r – C.F SS(T) /DF ERROR MS

TOTAL SS –  
Error (N – 1) – (t -1) TREATMENT SS SS(E) /DF

Total N–1 Ʃn i2 – CF    

Df = number of obs - 1 (df-1)

Total number of Obs = N – 1
Cf = correction factor
HOW TO CALCULATE SS

Take each of the summation treatment, square it and sum.

Calculate the sum of the square and subtract each measurement from the
mean, square the diff and add all the resulting measurement.
 

Not Square of sum but rather, sum of square.

Work Example 1
A student in the horticulture department conducted a final year project by
applying 4 level of zinc fertilizer of the tomato plants raised in pots. The
pots were similar in size and color and the same quantity of soil was used
to fill each pot. At the end of the experiments, the yield per treatment
obtained were the yield per treatment are presented in the following.

• Calculate and complete the ANOVA table and indicate the fertilizer
treatment, significantly affected the yield of the tomato plant and state
your conclusion.
Treatment R1 R2 R3 R4

1 60 64 65 55

2 75 70 66 69

3 74 78 72 68
Solution
We are interested in the total
T1 = 244, T2 = 280 T3 = 292
Grand total = TG = 816.
The second thing to do is to calculate the correction factor (CF)
CF = =
CF = 665856 / 12 = 55488
Ss treatment = ∑fi2 – C.F / r
Ss (treatment) = (244)2 + (280)2 + (292)2 / 4 – 55488
Ss (treatment) = 312
Ss total = 602 + 642 +652 + 552 +752 +702 + 662 +692 +742 +782 +722 +682 -(55488)
Ss total = 55956 – 55488
Ss total = 468 Error ss = 468 – 312 = 156
Source DF SS MS F (VR)
Treatment 3–1 312 312/2 156/17.3 =
(T – 1) ∑FI2 – C.F / R (SST / DF) 9.01
(TMS / ERROR
MS)
Error 11-2 = 9 156 156/9  
(N – 1) – (T – 1) SS(TOTAL) - (SSE / DF)
SS(TREATMENT
)
Total 12-1 = 11 468    
(N – 1) ƩN I2 – CF
The total treatment was 3 so the df = N -1 = 3 – 1 = 2
To determine if the treatment effect was significant or not, we compare
the F calculated with the F tabulated. Where the F calculated is greater
than F tabulated, we reject the null hypothesis and declare that
treatment effect significant. On the other hand, if the F calculated is
less than F tabulated, we accept the null hypothesis and declare that the
treatment effect was not significant and that any variation among the
treatment means was simply due to chance. The above is the typical
conclusion to give.
F calculated is 9.01 and hence we reject the null hypothesis since F
calculated is greater than F tabulated and declare that the treatment
effect was significant.
 
Note the ff.
SS (treatment) = ∑fi2 – C.F / r
Ss (error) = ss (total) – ss (treatment)
Ss (total) = ∑n12 – C. F
MS (treatment) = ss (treatment) / (df (treatment)
Ms (error) = ss(error) / df (error)
 
Work Example 2
the following table shows the result of an experiment which was
conducted in a growth chamber to determine the mycelial growth of a
fungus at the university of Guelph. 4 different treatments were applied at
the same rate.
i) Test the null hypothesis of no difference among the treatment means
and state your conclusions.
ii)determine the best and the worst treatment.
Treatment DOK1 DOK2 DOK3 DOK4

1 19.4 17.7 17.0 20.7

2 32.6 24.8 19.4 21.0

3 27.0 27.9 9.1 20.5

4 32.1 25.2 11.5 18.8

5 33.0 24.3 15.8 18.6

SOLUTION
Treatment = 4
T1= 19.4 + 32.6 + 27.0 + 32.1 + 33.0 =114.1
T2= 17.7 + 24.8 + 27.9 + 25.2 + 24.3 = 119.9
T3= 17.0 + 19.4 + 9.10 + 11.5 + 15.8 = 72.8
T4= 20.7 + 21.0 + 20.5 + 18.8 + 18.6 = 99.6
GT= (144) + (119.9) + (72.8) + (99.6)
GT= 436.4
C.F =

10072.16 - 9522.25 = 549.914

SS(Total) = ∑

=10339 – 9522.25
Ss(total) = 816.75
Ss(error) = ss(total) – ss(treatment)
Ss(error) = 816.75 – 549.91
Ss(error) = 266.84
 Source df Ss ms F
Treatment 4-1=3 549.91 183.30 10.98
Error (20-1) - (4-1) 266.84 16.68  
=16

Total 19 816.75    

Conclusion
From the table, F tab is 3.13. Since F cal. Is greater than F tab, we reject the
null hypothesis and declare significance.
Whereas, the best treatment was treatment 1 and the worst treatment being
treatment 3 according to the result.
 RANDOMIZED COMPLETE BLOCK DESIGN
This is probably the most used in field trials. under the CRD design, it was
stated that is the best and probably the only design sure that there are no
difference in the experimental material. but in real life situation, things differ.
And because of the difference in the experiment material so that any difference
that are measured during experimentation can be fully or wholly attributed to
the different treatment applied. In this case, we put the materials that are similar
into one group and all others into another group.

This principle of grouping similar experimental material based on their

similarities and their differences is called blocking. When blocking is rightly
done, we are able to minimize the intra-block variation and maximize the inter-
block variation making our results to be precise or very reliable.
 RANDOMIZED COMPLETE BLOCK DESIGN(RCBD)
RCBD is for studying the effects of one primary factor without the
need to take other nuisance variables into account. But for complete
randomized designs, the level of the primary factor is randomly
assigned to the experimental units.
 Module for RCBD
Yij= µ + Ti + Bj + Eij

Yij = any measurement made

µ= population Mean

Ti= treatment effect

Bj= block effect

Eij= Error
• A = MEAN – B MEAN OF X
 RCBD ANOVA TABLE
Source df ss ms F

Treatment t–1   sst /df tms / error ms

Blocks r-1 ssb/df Bms/Ems

Error (N – 1) – (t – 1) By difference sse / df  

- (r-1)

Total N–1 ƩNi2 – CF    

Worked Example 1
A researcher evaluated 6 different sources of organic fertilizer on the yield
of an extra early maize variety which matured 80 days after planting since
he divided the whole field into 4 blocks and applied each of the treatment
at random in each of the six plots in a block.
Treatment B1 B2 B3 B4
1 4.4 5.9 6.0 4.1
.
  2 3.9 1.9 4.9 7.1
 
3 4.4 4.0 4.5 3.1
4 6.8 6.6 7.2 6.4
5 6.3 4.9 5.9 7.1
6 6.4 6.3 7.7 6.7
Question

1.Calculate and complete the ANOVA table and indicate whether His
assumption of the non homogeneity of the field was supported by the data
presented in the following table.
2. if his assumption was not supported by the data, suggest the design He
should have used.
 Solution
We first of all calculate the Treatment totals.
T1= 4.4 + 5.9 +6.0 + 4.1 =20.4
T2= 3.9 + 1.9 + 4.9 +7.1 = 17.8
T3= 4.4 + 4.0 + 4.5 + 3.1 = 16
T4= 6.8 + 6.6 + 7.2 + 6.4 = 27
T5= 6.3 + 4.9 + 5.9 + 7.1 =24.2
T6= 6.4 + 6.3 + 7.7 +6.7 = 27.1

Having calculated the treatment totals, we move on to calculate the block totals.
B1= 4.4 + 3.9 + 4.4 + 6.8 + 6.3 + 6.4 = 32.2
B2= 5.9 + 1.9 + 4.0 + 6.6 + 4.9 + 6.3 = 29.6
B3 = 6.0 + 4.9 + 4.5 + 7.2 + 5.9 + 7.7 = 36.2
B4 = 4.1 + 7.1 + 3.1 + 6.4 + 7.1 + 6.7 = 34.5
The next step to consider, is calculating the Grand total of the treatments and
Grand total of Block.
You need to make sure that the grand total of the treatment is the same as
the grand total of the block.
GT (treatment) = 20.4 + 17.8 + 16 + 27 + 24.2 + 27.1= 132.5
 
GT (Block) = 32.2 + 29.6 + 36.2 + 34.5 = 132.5
The next thing to calculate for is, the C.F
C.F =
 
SS (treatment)=∑ti2 – C.F / r
 
SS (treatment) =
=28.00
SS (Block) =∑bi2 – C.F / t
 

SS (Block) =
SS (Block) = 4.11
 
Total SS = ∑
Total SS =

-731.51

Total SS = 50.28
 ANOVA TABLE
Source df ss ms F
Treatment 5 28.00 5.6 4.63
Block 3 4.11 1.37 1.13
Error 15 18.17 1.21  
Total 23 50.28    

F- tab = 3.29
F- calc.=1.13
In conclusion, we accept the null hypothesis because, there was no significant
difference in the experimental materials.
 
CRD was the design he should have used.
 Example 2
Tomato plant given fertilizer treatment were grown in a green house, 8
positions were designed on the greenhouse benches and 5 plants were placed
at each position, each plant was expressed as kg of ripe fruits.

1. Test the null hypothesis of no difference among the fertilizer treatment and
indicate the best treatment.
2. Did the data support blocking, even in the greenhouse?
Position T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
1 1.29 1.33 1.24 1.28 1.31
2 1.10 1.00 1.05 1.03 1.17
3 1.34 1.31 1.41 1.39 1.28
4 1.39 1.31 1.41 1.39 1.28
5 1.30 1.26 1.35 1.36 1.39
6 1.19 1.24 1.17 1.18 1.14
7 1.33 1.35 1.29 1.38 1.32
8 1.00 1.09 1.19 1.14 1.14
 Solution
Block Totals.
B1=6.45
B2=5.35
B3=6.73
B4=6.78
B5=6.66
B6=5.92
B7=6.67
B8=5.56
 
Treatment Totals
T1=9.94
T2=9.89
T3=10.11
T4=10.15
T5=10.03
 Grand total of treatment =50.12
Grand total of blocks (position) = 50.12

 
C.F =

 
SS (treatment) =
 
Ss(treatment) =
Ss (treatment) = 0.01
SS (block) =

 
SS (block) =
= 0.46

SS (Total) = ƩNi2 – CF

= 63.35 - 62.80
= 0.55
SS(error) = TSS-SSB-SST
 
SS(error) = 0.55 - 0.46 - 0.01
 
SS(error) = 0.08
 ANOVA TABLE
Source df ss ms F-cal F-tab
(0.05)
Treatment 4 0.01 0.003 23.33 2.36

Block 7 0.46 0.07    

Error 28 0.08 0.003    

Total 39 0.55      
F – tab is 2.36

Since F- cal is < F- tab, we accept the null hypothesis that there are no
differences in the fertilizer treatments. The Block – effect is highly
significant which proves that the experimenter was right in saying that the
position of a plant on the greenhouse bench could affect growth.
The best treatment was treatment 4 which had a value of 10.15
Again, the data shown above, indicates that blocking was necessary or
justifiable.
 
 LATIN SQUARE DESIGN
In CRD, it was stated that it is the only design to use when the
experimenter is sure that the experimental material is
homogenous. Even though this may be correct, in some instances,
difference may occur. where this is so, we carry out the
experiment by putting the materials similar in one group.

This process is called blocking, and the design is called RCBD.

Still in same situations, there will be differences along two
directions, and that to obtain precision, we block along both
directions. In that latter situation, it can only be used in LSD.
 
In LSD, blocking is done along two directions, and these are called rows
and columns. Each treatment must appear once and only once in each row
and column.

Model = Yijk=µ + Ti + Rj + Ck + Eijk

In LSD,
no. of rows = number of columns = number of treatments.
 C1 C2 C3 C4

R1 A B C D

R2 B C D A

R3 C D A B

R4 D A B C
 LATIN SQUARE ANOVA TABLE
source df ss ms F

Treatment t-1

Row t-1

Column t-1

Error By difference By difference

Total N-1 ƩNi2 – C.F
Example
A 5x5 planting square design was used in an experiment where
twelve tomato plants were grown in each plot. One of the
treatment were applied to each plot and the data shown below is
kg per ripe fruits per plot.
i) Test the null hypothesis that no differences existed among the 5
treatment.
ii) indicate the best and the worst treatment.
iii) perform a t-test between the best and worst treatment and state
your conclusion
iv) Calculate the magnitude of difference between this treatment
and state your conclusions.
  C1 C2 C3 C4 C5

R1 A=15.71 E=21.97 D=23.43 C=21.00 B=18.32

R2 D=21.96 B=18.92 A=17.22 E=23.59 C=23.20

R3 B=18.61 A=17.90 C=23.60 D=25.46 E=24.56

R4 C=23.81 D=24.41 E=27.65 B=19.79 A=17.91

R5 E=25.92 C=25.20 B=18.91 A=19.12 D=28.27

 SOLUTION

Row Totals

R1=100.43
R2=104.89
R3=110.13
R4=113.57
R5=117.42

Column Totals
 
C1=106.01
C2=108.4
C3=110.81
C4=108.96
C5=112.26
Treatment Totals.
 
A= 87.86
B= 94.55
C= 116.81
D= 123.53
E= 123.69
C.F =
 
SS (treatment) =
=11,943.87
= 228.64
 
SS (row) =
 
= 11,943.87
 
=36.59
 
SS (column) =
= 11,943.87
= 4.56
 

Total SS = ƩNi2 – C.F

= 12230.58 – 11943.87
= 286.71
 
Error SS = 286.71 – 36.59 – 4.56 – 228.64
= 16.92
 
 ANOVA TABLE

Sources df ss ms F- cal F- tab

(0.05)
Treatment 4 228.64 57.16 40.54  

Rows 4 36.59 9.15 6.49 3.26

Columns 4 4.56 1.14 0.81  

Error 12 16.92 1.41    

Total 24 286.71       
Since F – cal > F – tab, we reject the null hypothesis that there are no differences
between the treatments.
 

The best treatment = E 126.69

Worst treatment = A 87.86
 T - test
 
T=
 
Where,

Mean A= mean of best treatment

Mean B = mean of worst treatment
S.E = Standard Error.
S.E =
S.E =
S.E = 0.75
 
T=
T = 9.5
T – tab = 2.179
Since t – cal > t – tab, we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that there was
significant difference between the best and the worst treatment.
 
 
Magnitude of diff. also known as Confidence interval (C.I)
 
C.I =
C.I = 24.73 – 17.57 2.179 0.75
C.I = 7.16 1.63

We are 95% confident that, the difference between the best and the worst treatment
lies between 5.53 kg and 8.79kg of ripe fruits per plot.
 
Assignment
the table below shows the yield of wheat in kg per plot. In an experiment
where 4x4 Latin square was used at the university of California in 2009.

i) calculate and complete the ANOVA table and perform an independent t-test
between the second best treatment and the worst treatment.

ii) calculate the magnitude of difference between them.

State your conclusions in all cases.
was the experimenter right or wrong in using the LSD ?
indicate your reasons.
Suppose he was wrong or he used a wrong design, state the design he should
have used and present the ANOVA table for this new design.
  C1 C2 C3 C4

R1 C =7.5 D =7.7 B =12.0 A =13.2

R2 B =11.1 A =12.0 C =10.3 D =7.5

R3 D =5.8 C =12.2 A =11.2 B =13.7

R4 A =11.6 B =12.3 D =5.9 C =10.2

 Solved ANOVA Table
Source df ss ms F

Treatment 3 78.52 26.17 12.89

Row 3 1.25 0.42 0.21

Column 3 12.69 4.23 2.08

Error 6 6.08 2.03  

Total 15 98.54    
Second best treatment = TA=48.0
Worst treatment = TD=26.9
T- test
T=
 

Where
MeanA= mean of second best treatment
MeanD = mean of worst treatment
S.E = Standard Error.
But,
S.E =
=
=1.01
MeanA =  
MeanD =
T=
= 5.22
F- tab = 2.447
F- cal. = 5.22
Therefore, since F- cal is greater than F – tab, we reject the null
hypothesis and conclude that there was a significant difference
between the second best and the worst treatment.
C.I =
= 12
= 6.725
= 2.447
S.E = 1.01
 
C.I = 12 – 6.725 2.447 x 1.01

= 5.275 2.471
We are 95% confident that, the difference between the second best
and worst treatment lies between 2.80kg and 7.75kg of wheat yield
per plot.
 
Row
F – tab = 4.76
F – cal = 0.21
 
Column
F – tab = 4.76
F – cal = 2.08
Since the F – cal of both Row and Column are less than their
respective F - tab, we accept the null hypothesis of
insignificance and declare that, the experimenter ought not to
have blocked along both sides ( row and column).
Completely Randomized Design was the best design he should
have used. Therefore, the experimenter was wrong in using
LSD.
Hence the new CRD ANOVA table will be…
 Source df ss ms F

Treatment 3 78.52 26.17 15.67

 
Error 12 20.02 1.67

   
Total 15 98.54
 FACTORIAL EXPERIMENT
In the previous discussions, we were dealing with different rates of
the same factor or different sources of that same factor.
But in this experiment, we will be dealing with more than one
factor, hence treatment in this type of experiment are the
combination of different level of different factors.

Factorial experiment enable us to study more than one factor at a

time which reduces cost and time and also, to study the interaction
between or among the factors.
 
 ADVANTAGES OF FACTORIAL EXPERIMENT

 It enables us to study 2 factors at the same time.

 Saves time and cost.
 Enables the study of interactions between or among the
different factors.
 
 THINGS YOU SHOULD KNOW
 The treatments are the levels of combination for factorial experiment.
  N1 N2 N3

P1 P1N1 P1N2 P1N3

P2 P2N1 P2N2 P2N3

The above, is an example of a 2 x 3 factorial experiment.

 Factorial experiment are specially designated.
2 x 2 x 2 = 23 , 4 x 4, 2 x 3,
3 factors 2 levels = 2 x 2 x 2
 
NB. The base number represent the different factors while the
superscript are the different levels.
A = 2 x 2 = 22
B = 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 = 34
C = 4 x 4 = 42
MODEL OF FACTORIAL EXPERIMENT

Yijk = µ + Ai + Bj ( (AB)ij + Eijk

How to calculate standard error of difference from the anova table.

• If F - calc is less than f - tab, it means the experimenter’s initial

assumption of homogeneity in the experimental material was not
supported, hence was not significant and the vice versa.
• In rcbd he assumed that the experimental material was not
homogenous so he had to block
• In latin he assumed that there were two lines of variation so he
blocked.
• And if it was not significant, we use RCBD
Source df ss ms F
Factor B b-1 B

Factor A a-1 A

Ax B (a-1) (b-1) AB

Error (r-1) ab Difference E  

Total rab-1    
Where,
Ay = sum of squares due A.
By = sum of squares due B.
In factorial crops. If the interaction F is significant,
you are not allowed to present the result of the main
effects.

Where there are two factors in factorial experiment,

you will have the two factors interacting, and when
there are 3 factors, we are going to have 2 factors
interacting and 3 factors interacting. When there are 4
factors interacting, we are going to have 2 factors, 3
factors and 4 factors interacting.
 Example
A 4x2 factorial experiment arranged in RCBD was set up to
determine the effect of Nitrogen and Phosphorus on the growth
and yield of egg - plant at the horticulture department in 2000,
when President Kuffour was voted into power after J.J Rawlings
had finished His two terms in office.

The table below shows the yield of egg- plant in kg per plot after
all fruits from the three replications have been harvested.
Calculate and complete the ANOVA table and state your
conclusions
Nitrogen Phosphorus Rep 1 Rep 2 Rep 3 NP Totals (N) Totals
kg/ha kg/ha
  0 38.62 40.26 39.23 118.11  
0           220.47
  40 32.75 32.36 37.25 102.36  
             
  0 55.07 53.86 47.37 156.30  
20           306.16
  40 48.81 49.62 51.43 149.86  
             
  0 40.49 51.94 46.94 139.37  
40           277.09
  40 46.11 52.31 39.30 137.72  
             
  0 58.88 50.43 49.93 159.24  
60           316.15
  40 61.55 48.49 46.87 156.91  
Rep. Totals   382.28 379.27 358.32 1119.87  
Phosphorus Totals
P 1 = 573.02
P 2 = 546.85
Calculation of Variances
C.F = = 52254.53
 
TSS = (38.62)2 + (40.26)2 … (46.87)2 – C.F
 
= 53612.84 – 52254.53
 
= 1358.31
Rep SS =
=52297.12 – 52254.53
=42.59
Nitrogen (SS) =
=53178.44 – 52254.53
=923.91
 
Phosphorus (SS) =
 
= 52283.07 – 52254.53
 
= 28.54
(NP) SS =

=53228.06 – C.F – Ny – Py
= 973.53 – 923.91 – 28.54
= 21.08
 
C.F =
Where r = Reps
A=a
B=b
Sources df SS MS F
Replication R – 1 =2 42.559 21.30 0.87
Nitrogen N–1=3 923.91 311.30 12.74
Phosphorus P–1=1 28.54 28.54 1.17
NxP (n -1) (p-1) =3 21.08 3.69 0.15
Error (r-1) (np -1) 342.19 24.44  
=14

Total Rxnxp- 1358.31    

1=23
Conclusion
Nitrogen fertilizer application significantly increase yield
over where no fertilizer was applied.

But there were no significant differences between the levels

of Phosphorus applied.
 SPLIT PLOT DESIGN
This is also factorial experiment, (more than one
factor) but in this case, one of the factors is more
important to the experimenter than the other. The
experimenter therefore puts the more important
factor into smaller plots called the split or sub-plot
and the less important is put in the main plot. In this
case, data from the sub plot becomes more reliable
than from the main plot or whole plot.
This design can be used under one of the following
conditions.

1.When one of the factors is more important than the other.

2.Where a new one can be super-imposed on an already
existing or ongoing one.
3.When one of the factors can be allocated to a smaller plot
and the other on a bigger plot.
 Model
=µ +

Where,
µ = population mean
Replication effect
Error A
factor B
= Interaction AXB
= Sub- plot Error or Error II
What is Research ?

This is a systematic and planned enquiry to obtain a

new idea, confirm or challenge the results of previous
works, where such results will lead to an administrative
decision to be used by the society.
NB
Split plot involves 2 factors, and split- split plot
involves 3 factors.
In the discussion of the various designs, it was mentioned that,
where the
F – calc. is greater than the F – tab, you declare significant
differences in the treatment effect and vice – versa.

Even though this gives a good impression about the treatment that
was applied, we are limited as to where the differences lie, because
more than one treatment is over used during experimentation. Thus,
we need to explore, to identify which pair of treatment means do
we have significant differences and where we have not.

To this end, we use multiple comparison procedure .

Using one of these, we are able to pin-point which pair of
treatment that have differences and which pair that doesn’t
have.

Examples of These Procedures

1.Least significant differences(LSD)
2.Turkey’s or Honest student differences.
3.Duncan’s Multiple range Test.
 Least Significant Differences (LSD)
This method has been used in both field and controlled experiment
and is still very useful.
In all the procedures, a critical value is calculated, and used to
compare the differences between each per of treatments.

Where the difference is greater than the critical value, it means the
difference between such pair of treatment is significant and vice
versa.
How to calculate critical value under LSD
Critical value = t αdf x SED
Where,
t αdf = t – tab value
SED = Standard Error
S.E =
=
= 2.131 x 0.778
CV = 1.65
 
Assuming treatments are:
 
Treatment Total Treatment
Mean
A = 20.4 5.1
B = 17.8 4.45
C = 16 4.0
D = 27 6.75
E = 24.2 6.05
F = 27.1 6.77
 
But CV = 1.65
CV = t αdf x
Treatment with the greatest effect (F) = 6.77
Treatment with the least effect (C) = 4.0
The difference between the greatest treatment and
the worse treatment will be
6.77 – 4.0 = 2.77
We now compare the difference with the critical value. Since
the difference is greater than the CV, we declare significant
difference between the treatment.

We then denote with different letters like a, b, c, d. etc

 Analysis Of Variance
This is an arithmetic tool that was proposed by R.A Fisher in 1973,
where the total variability or variation is divided into several
component.

It has been used to handle several experimental data, and is still a

sensitive test. It must be noted however that, not all data can be
analyzed with this technique.

This is because there are some assumptions which must be fulfilled by

the data. Where the assumptions are not met, there are other tools that
can be used to run the analysis of such data.
In some others where the assumptions are not met
in certain data set, the ANOVA can be still used in
running this data, provided they are transformed or
the data is transformed.
 Assumptions Of ANOVA
1. Assumption of the Error Variance: the assumption here is that, the
experimental errors are normally and independently (randomly) distributed
About the ZERO mean, with a common variance forms.

0 x
a. Independence of error: this will be achieved for you to use the
ANOVA to run the data, if proper randomization was done at
all stages of the experiment.
b.Homogeneity of Variances: the assumption is that, errors
associated with the various treatments are all proper estimates
of true population error variance. In order words, The true
population error variance is being estimated by pulling or
adding all the other variance
c. Experimental error must be normally distributed: this means
that the bulk of the measurement must lie at the mid-point
with few outliners.
 DATA TRANSFORMATION
This is the process where the nature of the data set is
changed so that they can conform to the assumptions
under the ANOVA so that we can use the ANOVA
technique to run the data.
Remember that it is only the nature of the data set that
changed.
 Three Methods of Data Transformation
1.Square root Transformation.
This is used where the data are counts (number of tillers,
number of leaves, number of branches, number of insects,
number of bacteria colonies, number of nodules etc.)
This transformation is also appropriate when the
measurement consist of small whole numbers. In effect, what
we do is that, before data analysis, every number must
calculate the square root of each data set and run the data on
these values.
This method are normally used by scientist.
1.Logarithm ( log) Transformation: this is used when the treatment
effect is multiplicative instead of additive.

Any log base could be used but most often 10 is used. Base 10
is the simplest among the other bases. When the data to be
transformed includes Zero. 1 is added to every data before
transformation.

2. Arc-sign Transformation: This transformation is used when dealing

with binomial data expressed as decimal fractions or percentages.
 
 
 Linear Regression and Correlation.

Variables in agricultural research are normally influenced by

others.
For example yield of maize may be dependent on the amount
of fertilizer applied. The weight of piglets may be dependent
on the amount of feed given.

These relationships of variables is studied under regression

and correlation
A Researcher may want to find out whether a
relationship exist between 2 variables. And if so, the
degree of the relationship. The former interest deals with
regression. Where we estimate the relationship of one
variable with another by expressing it in terms of a linear
function of the other. Regression may also be used to
predict values of one variable in terms of another.

The latter interest in which we estimated the degree of

relationship between the 2 variables is called correlation.
The best line that fits the points on the scatter diagram
is called the regression line.

a.Positive correlation
b.No correlation
c.Negative correlation
 Simple linear regression
This is a dependent – independent relationship.
From the scatter diagrams above, it is so because all the
treatment effect do not lie on a straight line. So we draw
the line that best fits the occasion. This is the regression
line.
We can thus estimate the regression co-efficient, which is
the regression co- efficient and that is the amount of
increase in the dependent variable for a unit increase in
the independent variable.
 X Y XY
10 15 150 100
12.5 17 212.5 156.25
15 21 315 225
17.5 20 350 306.25
20 27 540 400
= 75 =100 =1567.5 =1187.5