NEBOSH International General Certificate

in Occupational Safety and Health

Unit IG2

Element 7: Chemical and Biological Agents

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 Learning Objectives
• Describe the forms of, the classification of and the health risks from
exposure to hazardous substances.
• Describe what should be considered when undertaking an
assessment of the health risks from substances commonly
encountered in the workplace.
• Describe the use and limitations of occupational exposure limits
including the purpose of long-term and short-term exposure limits.
• Describe control measures that should be used to reduce the risk
of ill health from exposure to hazardous substances.
• Describe the hazards, risks and controls associated with specific
agents.

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 7.1 Forms of, Classification of and Health
Risks from Hazardous Substances

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 Forms of Chemical Agents
• Solid.
• Dust.
• Fumes.
• Gas.
• Mist.
• Vapour.
• Liquid.
• Fibres.

The physical form greatly affects the hazard presented and the
route of entry into the body.

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 Forms of Biological Agents
• Fungi:
‒ e.g. farmer’s lung.
• Bacteria:
‒ e.g. Legionnaires’ disease, leptospirosis.
• Viruses:
‒ e.g. HIV, hepatitis B.

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 Acute and Chronic Health Effects
Acute: Chronic:
• Short-term effect. • Long-term effect.
• High levels of exposure. • Lower levels of exposure.
• Short exposure time. • Long exposure time, e.g.
• Quick effect, e.g. exposure multiple exposures to
to high concentration of asbestos.
chlorine gas.

Both acute and

chronic effects:
e.g. organic
solvent, alcohol

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 Classification of Chemicals Hazardous to Health
• Physico-chemical effects:
‒ e.g. highly flammable, explosive or oxidising.

• Health effects:
‒ e.g. toxic, carcinogenic.

• Environmental effects:
‒ e.g. harmful to aquatic life.

European Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 on

Classification, Labelling and Packaging of Substances and
Mixtures (CLP Regulation).

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 Classification of Chemicals Hazardous to Health
• Acute Toxicity
− Small doses cause death or serious illness.

• Skin Corrosion/Irritation
− Destroys living skin tissue or causes inflammation.

• Serious Eye Damage/Eye Irritation

− Destroys eye tissue or causes inflammation.

• Respiratory or Skin Sensitisation

− Causes asthma or allergic dermatitis.

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 Classification of Chemicals Hazardous to Health
• Germ Cell Mutagenicity
− Causes hereditary genetic mutation.
• Carcinogenicity
− Causes cancer.
• Reproductive Toxicity
− Causes sterility or is harmful to unborn child.
• Specific Target Organ Toxicity
− Causes damage to specific body organs.
• Aspiration Hazard
− Harmful if inhaled into the lungs.
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 Classification of Chemicals Hazardous to Health
Sensitising agents (chemicals):
• Respiratory sensitisers:
‒ Causes occupational asthma, e.g. flour dust, isocyanates.
• Skin sensitisers:
‒ Cause allergic dermatitis, e.g. epoxy resin.

Dermatitis:
Non-infectious skin condition where the skin becomes dry,
flaky, cracked and painful.
• Primary Contact Dermatitis:
‒ Skin reacts at point of contact only, remove agent and skin
recovers.
• Allergic or Secondary Contact Dermatitis:
‒ Sensitisation reaction; dermatitis all over skin.

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 7.2: Assessment of Health Risks

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 Group Exercise
How can a chemical or biological organism enter
the body?

Which is the highest risk route of entry

and why?

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 Routes of Entry
• Inhalation:
‒ Inhalable dust (all particles).
‒ Respirable dust (only smaller particles).
• Ingestion.
• Absorption through the skin.
• Injection through the skin:
‒ Needle-stick.
‒ Cuts and grazes.
‒ Bites.
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 Defence Mechanisms
The body has two main defence mechanisms to combat
attack by biological agents and damage by chemicals:
• Cellular (internal) defence – cells fight bacteria and other
toxins from blood, respiratory and ingestion entry routes.
• Superficial (external) defence – protects against toxins
that enter through the skin and contaminants in the nose
and throat.

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 Respiratory Defences
• Sneeze reflex.
• Filtration in nasal cavity.
• Mucociliary escalator.
• Macrophages/
phagocytes.
• Inflammatory
response.

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 Skin Defences
• Waterproof barrier
comprised of:
‒ Outer layer (epidermis).
‒ Inner layer (dermis).

• Defence mechanisms
include:
‒ Replenishment of dead cells.
‒ Sebum - biocidal properties.

• Inflammatory response.
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 Assessment of Health Risks
1. Identify the hazardous substances present and the
people who might potentially be exposed.
2. Gather information about the substance.
3. Evaluate the health risk.
4. Identify any controls needed and implement them.
5. Record the assessment and action taken.
6. Review.

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 Assessment of Health Risks

• Hazardous nature of • Concentration.

substance. • Number of people.
• Potential ill-health • Frequency of exposure.
effects.
• Duration of exposure.
• Physical forms.
• Control measures.
• Routes of entry.
• Quantity.

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 Product Labels
Set requirements:
• Name of substance/mixture.
• Hazardous components.
• Risk phrases indicating danger.
• Precautions.
• Details of supplier.

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 Guidance Documents
• HSE Guidance Note EH40:
‒ Sets UK legal Workplace Exposure Limits (WELs).
‒ Maximum concentrations of airborne substances.

• EU list of Indicative Limit Values:

‒ Sets EU legal limit values for 19 chemical agents.

• American Conference of Government Industrial

Hygienists (ACGIH) Threshold Limit Values (US):
‒ Guidelines, not legal standards.

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 Group Exercise

Safety Data Sheets

Outline the type of information you would need to know
about a domestic weed killer in order to assess the risks.

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 Safety Data Sheets
1. Identification of substance
and supplier.
2. Hazard identification.
3. Composition of ingredients.
4. First-aid measures.
5. Fire-fighting measures.
6. Accidental release
measures.
7. Handling and storage.
8. Exposure controls/PPE.
9. Physical/chemical
properties.
10. Stability and reactivity.
11. Toxicological information.
12. Ecological information.
13. Disposal considerations.
14. Transport information.
15. Regulatory information.
16. Other information.

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 Limitations of Information
• Information sources provide general information only.
• Don’t consider the specific conditions of use.
• Individual susceptibility.
• Mixed exposures.
• Based on current knowledge.

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 The Role of Hazardous Substance Monitoring
Monitoring personal exposure to hazardous substances is sometimes
necessary to quantify the concentration of a substance that a worker
is potentially exposed to.
For example, personal dosimeter for dust exposure:
• A filter and air pump is worn by worker while working.
• Gives average value over time.

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 The Role of Hazardous Substance Monitoring

• Failure or deterioration of the controls can result in

serious health effects.
• To ensure an OEL (e.g. WEL) is not exceeded.
• To check effectiveness of control measures.
• After any change occurs which could affect control.

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Limitations of Hazardous Substance Monitoring

• Accuracy of results.
• Variations in personal exposure:
‒ Habits and practices.
• Absence of a standard:
‒ Not everything has a limit.
• Other exposure routes:
‒ Monitoring focuses only on airborne contaminants.

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 End of Section 7.2 Exercise

1. What are the four main routes of entry chemicals

can take into the body?
2. How is the respiratory system defended?
3. What information would you find on a safety data
sheet?

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 7.3: Occupational Exposure Limits

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 Occupational Exposure Limits
• Around the world, there are different Occupational Exposure Limits
(OELs) for hazardous substances:
‒ There is no global standard.

• In the UK, they are called Workplace Exposure Limits (WELs).

• They set a maximum limit of exposure that can’t be exceeded over

a given time period.

• WELs have legal status under the COSHH Regulations.

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 Occupational Exposure Limits
Definition of WEL:

“The maximum concentration of an airborne

substance, averaged over a reference period, to which
employees may be exposed by inhalation”

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 Short-Term and Long-Term Limits

Term Time period Reasons for limits

Short-Term Exposure Combat acute effects

15 minutes
Limits (STELs) Very high exposure for a short time

Long-Term Exposure Combat chronic effects

8 hours
Limits (LTELs) Lower exposure over longer period

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 The Purpose of Time-Weighted Averages
A worker might be exposed to different levels of a
hazardous substance throughout the working day.

The STELs prevent them being exposed to harmful levels of

the substance over short periods of time where this would
cause acute effects.

The LTELs prevent them being exposed to harmful levels

over the full working day where this would cause chronic
effects.

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 Limitations of Exposure Limits
Being below a limit does not prove it is safe:
• Only concerned with inhalation.
• No account of individual sensitivity or susceptibility.
• No account of synergistic or combined effects.
• Invalid if normal environmental conditions change.
• Some limits do not consider all possible health effects of a
substance.

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 International Standards
UK: Workplace Exposure Limits
EU: Indicative Limit Values
US:
- The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) sets
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs).
- The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
recommends Recommended Exposure Limits (RELs).
- The American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) has developed Workplace
Environmental Exposure Limits (WEELs).
- The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) enforces
Department of Labour Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs).

There is no global standard!

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 End of Module Exercise
1. What are OELs? What are they known as in the
UK?
2. What is the difference between:
• An 8-hour TWA?
• A 15-minute STEL?

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 7.4: Control Measures

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 The Need to Prevent or Control Exposure

• Prevention of exposure is the best.

• If not possible to prevent exposure,

adequately control it.

• Ensure WELs/OELs are not exceeded.

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 Principles of Good Practice
• Minimise emission, release and spread of hazardous substances.
• Consider routes of exposure.
• Use control measures proportionate to the risk.
• Choose effective and reliable control measures.
• Use PPE where control cannot be achieved by other means.
• Check control measures regularly.
• Inform and train employees.
• Ensure new control measures do not increase overall risk.

In the EU and UK, these eight principles are a legal requirement. In the UK
they are set out in Schedule 2A of the Control of Substances Hazardous to
Health Regulations 2002.

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 Group Exercise
A gardener is spraying a weed killer in a domestic garden in
windy conditions.
The gardener has no means of washing his hands, etc., and
the house owners have children and a dog.
The weed killer is an organophosphate labelled ‘toxic’.
Using the ‘hierarchy of control’, discuss how the risk may be
reduced.

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 The Practical Control of Exposure
• Elimination or substitution.
• Process change.
• Reduce exposure times.
• Enclosure and segregation.
• Local Exhaust Ventilation (LEV).
• Dilution ventilation.
• Respiratory protective equipment.
• Other PPE.
• Personal hygiene and protection regimes.
• Health surveillance.
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 Elimination or Substitution and Process Change
• Elimination or substitution:
‒ Eliminate process, e.g. outsource painting.
‒ Change work, e.g. screw rather than glue.
‒ Dispose of unwanted stock.
‒ Substitute hazardous for non-hazardous, e.g. irritant to non-
hazardous floor cleaner, or corrosive to irritant.
‒ Change physical form of substance to one that’s less harmful.

• Process change:
‒ Apply solvent by brush instead of spraying.
‒ Vacuum rather than sweep.

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 Reduce Exposure Times
● Double the time, double the dose; half the time,
half the dose.
● Minimise the time period over which people are
working with hazardous substances.
● Link to OELs.

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 Enclosure and Segregation
Enclosure: Segregation:
• Totally enclose the • Keep people away.
substance. • Designated areas.
• Prevent access to it.

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 Local Exhaust Ventilation

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 Group Exercise

Discuss how the effectiveness of LEV may

be reduced.

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 Local Exhaust Ventilation
Will be reduced by:
• Poorly positioned intake hoods.
• Damaged ducts.
• Excessive amounts of contamination.
• Ineffective fan.
• Blocked filters.
• Build-up of contaminant in the ducts.
• Sharp bends in ducts.
• Unauthorised additions to the system.

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 Local Exhaust Ventilation
• Routine visual inspection:
‒ Integrity checks, e.g. filters, contaminant build-up, etc.

• Planned preventive maintenance:

‒ e.g. replacing filters, lubricating fan bearings, etc.

• Periodic testing:
‒ Ensure air velocities are adequate.
‒ COSHH requirement every 14 months.

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 Dilution Ventilation
• Diluting the contaminant.
• Changes the air.
• Passive dilution – vents.
• Active dilution – powered fans.
• Used where:
– WEL is high.
– Formation of gas or vapour is slow.
– Operators are not close to contamination.
• Important to know whether contaminant is lighter or heavier
than air.

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 Dilution Ventilation
Passive Dilution Ventilation

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 Dilution Ventilation
Limitations are:

• Not suitable for highly toxic substances.

• Compromised by sudden release of large quantities of
contaminant.
• Do not work well:
‒ For dust.
‒ For point sources.
• Dead areas may exist:
‒ Where there is little air movement.

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 Respiratory Protective Equipment
Two types:
• Respirators:
‒ Filter contaminated air from the atmosphere around the
wearer.

• Breathing Apparatus (BA):

‒ Provide breathable air from a separate source.

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 Respirators
Filtering Facepiece Respirators

Use and benefits Limitations

Cheap Low level of protection

Easy to use Does not seal against the face effectively

Disposable Uncomfortable to wear

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 Respirators
Half-Mask or Ori-Nasal Respirators
Use and benefits Limitations

Good level of filtration No built-in eye protection

Good fit achievable Negative pressure inside facepiece

Easy to use Uncomfortable to wear

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 Respirators
Full-Face Respirators
Use and benefits Limitations

Good level of filtration Restricts vision

Good fit achievable Negative pressure inside facepiece

Protects the eyes Uncomfortable to wear

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 Respirators
Powered Respirators

Use and benefits Limitations

Intermediate level of filtration Heavy to wear

Air movement cools wearer No tight face seal

Air stream prevents inward leaks Limited battery life

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 Breathing Apparatus

Compressed Airline BA: air under pressure

Use and benefits Limitations

Supply of air is not time-restricted if a compressor Hose can be long, but not endless
is used
Positive pressure inside facepiece

Wearer is not burdened with cylinder

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 Breathing Apparatus
Self-contained BA: pressurised cylinder

Use and benefits Limitations

Complete freedom of movement Supply of air is time-restricted

Positive pressure inside facepiece Equipment is bulky and heavy

More technical training is required

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 Selection, Use and Maintenance of Respiratory
Protective Equipment
Factors to consider:
• Concentration of the • Compatibility with other
contaminant and its hazards. items of PPE.
• Physical form of the • Shape of the user’s face.
substance. • Facial hair.
• Level of protection offered by • Physical requirements of
the RPE. the job.
• Presence or absence of • Physical fitness of the
oxygen. wearer.
• Duration of time that it must
be worn.

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 Selection, Use and Maintenance of Respiratory
Protective Equipment
Users should understand:
• How to fit the RPE.
• How to test it to ensure that it is working effectively.
• The limitations of the item.
• Any cleaning requirements.
• Any maintenance requirements (e.g. how to change filter).

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 Other Personal Protective Equipment
• Hand protection:
‒ Gloves, gauntlets.
‒ Chemicals, biological agents, physical
injury.

• Eye protection:
‒ Spectacles, goggles, visors.

• Body protection:
‒ Overalls, aprons, whole-body
protection.

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 Personal Hygiene and Protection Regimes
• Hand-washing routines.
• Careful removal and disposal of PPE to prevent cross-
contamination to normal clothes.
• Prohibition of eating, drinking and smoking in work areas.
• Washing facilities.
• Changing facilities.
• Rest and food preparation areas.

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 Personal Hygiene and Protection Regimes
Vaccination:
• Against biological agents, e.g.:
‒ Hepatitis B.
‒ Tetanus.
‒ Typhoid.
• Worker consent required.
• Immunity not always achieved.
• False sense of security.

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 Health Surveillance
Health monitoring:
• Looks for signs and symptoms of disease.
• E.g. bakery workers have lung function tests to check for asthma
because flour dust is a respiratory sensitiser.

Biological monitoring:
• Looks for the contaminant in blood, urine or breath.
• E.g. lead in blood for a lead-worker.

Screening on first employment:

• To establish a ‘baseline’.

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 Further Control of Carcinogens, Mutagens and Asthmagens

COSHH states that adequate control hasn’t been

achieved unless:
• The WEL has not been exceeded.
• The eight principles of good practice have been
applied.
• Exposure is controlled to As Low As is Reasonably
Practicable (ALARP).

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 Further Control of Carcinogens, Mutagens and Asthmagens

In addition to standard control measures, the following

MUST be considered:
• Total enclosure of process or handling systems.
• Prohibition of eating, drinking and smoking.
• Regular cleaning.
• Warning signs.
• Safe storage, handling and disposal.

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 7.5: Specific Agents

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 Asbestos

Naturally occurring mineral fibres used for fire-resistant

building and lagging materials:
• Blue (crocidolite).
• Brown (amosite).
• White (crysotile).

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 Group Exercise

How was asbestos used in industry and

buildings?

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 Asbestos
Use:
• Asbestos cement roofs.
• Ceiling tiles.
• Fire break walls.
• Floor tiles.
• Downpipes.
• Pipe lagging.

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 Health Risks Associated with Asbestos
Diseases:
• Asbestosis.
• Lung cancer.
• Mesothelioma.
• Diffuse pleural thickening.

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 Managing Asbestos in Buildings
The Control of Asbestos Regulations 2012 require:
• Awareness of presence of asbestos by occupiers/owners.
• Need for an asbestos management plan.
• Maintaining an Asbestos Register – identifying locations.
• Record of regular inspections.
• Monitoring the condition.

Left alone and undisturbed, asbestos will not cause

harm to anyone.

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 Blood-Borne Viruses
Any virus present in and transmissible by blood; e.g.
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and hepatitis virus.
• Hepatitis B and C:
‒ Transmitted in blood and other body fluids.
‒ Risk to healthcare workers, fire-fighters, police, waste
disposal workers, etc.
‒ Symptoms are jaundice, liver damage.
‒ Can be a chronic disease.

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 Blood-Borne Viruses
Typical controls for hepatitis:
• PPE: gloves, eye protection.
• Disposal of material as clinical waste.
• Prevention of needle-stick injuries.
• Decontamination and disinfection.
• Vaccination.
• Accident procedures, e.g. needle-stick injuries.

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 Carbon Monoxide
Colourless, odourless gas:
• By-product of partial combustion, e.g. poorly maintained
boilers.
• Inhalation hazard.
• Prevents red blood cells transporting oxygen.
• Chemical asphyxiation:
‒ Low levels (0.005%) – worsening headache.
‒ High levels (1.3%) – rapid unconsciousness and
death.

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 Carbon Monoxide
Typical controls:
• Competent engineers for gas systems.
• Maintenance and testing of boilers and flues.
• Good ventilation.
• LEV for workshop vehicle exhausts.
• Siting of equipment containing combustion engines.
• CO alarms.
• Confined space entry controls.

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 Cement
Used to make mortar and concrete.
Harmful effects:
• Irritation of the:
‒ Eyes.
‒ Respiratory tract.
‒ Skin.
• Corrosive burns to skin on
repeated/prolonged contact.
• Allergic dermatitis.

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 Cement
Typical controls:
• Eliminating or reducing exposure.
• PPE - gloves, dust masks, eye protection.
• Removal of contaminated clothing.
• Good hygiene and washing skin on contact.

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 Legionella Bacteria
Health Risk
• Water-loving soil bacteria.

• Infests water systems.

• Water sprayed to form a mist creates inhalation risk.

• ‘Flu-like fever followed by pneumonia.

• Legionnaires’ disease.

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 Legionella Bacteria
Management controls:
• Risk assessment, written control scheme and review of control measures.
• Nominated responsible person.

Practical controls:
• Avoid water temperatures between 20°C and 45°C.
• Avoid water stagnation.
• Avoid using material that can harbour bacteria and provide them with
nutrients.
• Control the release of water spray.
• Keep water, storage systems and equipment clean.
• Use water (chemical) treatments where necessary.
• Carry out water sampling and analysis.
• Ensure correct and safe operation and maintenance of water systems.

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 Leptospira Bacteria
Leptospirosis:
• Infected urine from: rats, mice, cattle and horses.
• Contaminated water in contact with cuts, grazes, etc.
• Occupations at risk are dairy farmers, sewage workers, water sports instructors.
• ’Flu-like symptoms, jaundice, liver damage (Weil’s disease).

Typical controls:
• Preventing rat infestation – good
housekeeping, pest control.
• Good personal hygiene.
• PPE, especially gloves.
• Covering cuts and grazes.
• Issuing ‘at risk cards’ to workers.
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 Silica
• Component of rock (quartz).
• Found in quarries, pottery and construction industry.
• Inhalation hazard (respirable crystalline silica).
• Causes scar tissue to form in lungs (silicosis).

Typical controls:
• Alternative work methods.
• Dust suppression by water.
• LEV.
• RPE.
• Health surveillance.

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 Wood Dust
• Inhalation hazard – causes irritation.
• May cause asthma.
• Some hardwoods can cause cancer.

Typical controls:
• LEV.
• Vacuuming rather than sweeping.
• RPE.
• Health surveillance.

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RRCInternational
RRC International
International © RR International
 Summary
In this element, we have:
• Outlined the different physical forms of chemicals and biological
agents that can be hazardous to health.
• Identified the meaning of the terms ‘acute’ and ‘chronic’ when
used to describe health effects.
• Outlined the classification of hazardous chemicals.
• Explained the main routes of entry into the body.
• Noted some principles for assessing risk from exposure to
hazardous substances and the sources of information used.
• Identified the requirement to undertake basic monitoring to
assess concentrations of hazardous substances in the workplace.

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RRC International
International
 Summary
• Outlined the principle of OELS, such as WELs, and the purpose of
STELs and LTELs.
• Outlined the principles of good practice for controlling exposure.
• Described a hierarchy of controls for hazardous substances.
• Outlined basic principles of LEV and dilution ventilation.
• Described types of RPE: respirators and BA.
• Described the ill-health effects of asbestos, various chemicals and
biological agents found in workplaces, and the general controls
required.

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RRC International
International