WELDING

METALLURGY
Introduction

 Due to development of new alloys with increased strength and

toughness levels
 A working knowledge of metallurgy is essential
• The microstructures of the weld metal and heat-affected zone (HAZ)
• The welding variables, such as the weld thermal cycle, chemical
reactions in the molten pool, alloying, flux composition, and
contaminants,
• which affect the weld and HAZ microstructures
 Welding metallurgy
 Arc welds are subjected to severe thermal cycles with rapid heating
and cooling during welding
Introduction

 The heat flow patterns often cause microstructural changes

 The weld metal melts during welding and rapidly resolidifies
during cooling
 The unmelted base metal adjacent to the weld may be heated to
sufficiently high temperatures to undergo phase transformations,
grain growth or recrystallisation of cold worked material
 The properties of the welded joint are mainly determined by these
microstructural changes
 Added filler metal makes the weld deposit to consist of a mixture
of parent metal and filler metal
Introduction

 Little consequence when the parent and filler metals have similar
compositions
 Where the compositions differ, dilution of the filler metal with
the melted base metal occur
 Edge preparation, type of joint and process used affects the
degree of dilution
 Dilution is generally expressed as a percentage
 WP is the weight of the parent metal melted, and
 WT is the total weight of the fused metal
Introduction

 The weld metal and the area surrounding it are usually a

chemically heterogeneous composite
Introduction

 Composite zone: a completely melted and homogeneous mixture

of filler metal and melted base metal
• Thorough mixing is promoted by forced convection
 Unmixed zone: a narrow region surrounding the composite zone
and is a boundary layer of molten base metal that froze before
experiencing any mixing
• A typical thickness of about 1.3 mm to 2.5 mm and has identical
composition to base metal
• Visible in welds utilising filler metal alloys of substantially
different composition than the base metal
Introduction

 Weld interface: delineates the boundary between the unmelted

base metal and the solidified weld metal
 Partially melted zone: observed in the base metal immediately
adjacent to the weld interface
• Alloys containing low-melting inclusions, liquation of these low-
melting microscopic regions may occur
 Heat-affected zone (HAZ): region of the weld joint which
experienced peak temperatures high enough to produce solid-
state microstructural changes
 Unaffected base metal: part of the workpiece that does not
undergo any metallurgical changes during welding
Weld metal/fusion zone

 The structure and properties of the weld metal depend on the

chemical composition of the weld pool and the heat flow pattern
in the molten metal
 The size and shape of the weld bead is affected by the heat flow
pattern
 The magnitude and distribution of the input energy can be
controlled through measurements
 Changes in the arc energy distribution by varying the shielding
gas or electrode tip angle in GTAW
 The dissipation of energy in the workpiece is less subject to
control
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Conduction transfers heat away from the weld pool

 The weld pool heat transfer is complicated and is dominated by
convection though conduction occurs
 Convective heat loss is directional and changes the weld pool
shape
 Heat and fluid flow patterns control the solidification behaviour
of the weld metal
 Where the filler metal is of a different composition from the base
metal, three regions exists; the composite zone (CZ), unmixed
zone (uMZ), a transition zone (TZ)
Weld metal/fusion zone

 The uMZ consists of melted and resolidified base metal that does
not mix with the filler metal
 In some alloy systems, the uMZ can exhibit microstructures and
properties very different from those of the composite region
 Between the uMZ and CZ, a transition zone (TZ) must exist
where a composition gradient from the base metal to the CZ is
present
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Autogenous welds are those where no filler metal is added

 Common in section where thicknesses are minimal and
penetration can easily be achieved
 Can often be applied at high speeds and minimum preparations
are needed
 Welding processes are GTAW, EBW, PAW and resistance welding
 The fusion zone is essentially the same composition as the base
metal
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Not all materials can be joined autogenously

 Homogenous welds involve the use of a filler metal that closely
matches the base metal
 Application requires that filler and base metal properties must be
closely matched
 Heat treatment response or corrosion resistance are examples of
such properties
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Heterogeneous welds are fusion welds made with filler metals

whose composition is different from that of the base metal
 Matching filler metals may not exist
 Weld properties desired may not be achievable with a matching
composition
 Many base metal compositions may have poor weldability
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Base metal compositions may have inherently poor weldability

and that dissimilar filler metals are required
 Use of a dissimilar composition filler metal include strength,
weld defect formation (e.g., porosity), weldability/solidification
cracking resistance, heat treatment response, corrosion resistance,
filler metal cost, and operating characteristics of the consumable
 Mass flow in the weld pool
 Flow in the molten weld pool promotes uniformity of
composition
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Fluid flow is mainly driven by the arc force, buoyancy forces,

electromagnetic stirring (Lorentz force), and surface tension
gradients
 Actual surface flow velocities of the order of 100 cm/s have been
observed on stainless steel weld pools
 Trivial fluid flow velocities are required for heat transport by
mass flow to dominate heat transport by conduction
 A dramatic change in weld pool shape can be produced simply by
changing the weld pool fluid flow pattern
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Tellurium alters fluid flow patterns by changing surface tension

gradients on the weld pool

 (a) Undoped, and (b) doped with 62 ppm

Weld metal/fusion zone

 Mass flow due to surface tension gradients (Marangoni flow)

 In 1871, Marangoni demonstrated that, if a surface tension
gradient exists, fluid will be drawn from lower surface tension to
higher surface tension
 This force, especially in GTAWs, can be large and it may
dominate other forces in the liquid
 Surface tension gradients are temperature dependent
 In pure metals and many alloys, surface tension decreases with
increasing temperature dγ/dT is negative
Weld metal/fusion zone

 If a temperature gradient, dT/dr exist across surface

 A shear force equal to (dγ/dT)(dT/dr) = dγ/dr (Nm -2) is created
and generates flow in the liquid metal
 A temperature gradient from the centre of the weld to the weld
pool boundary exist and dT/dr is negative
 The product, dγ/dr, is positive, the shear force acts outwards from
the centre
 Any flow that is generated at the surface is outwards, towards the
weld pool boundary (divergent flow)
 This fluid flow pattern transfers heat from the hottest part of the
weld pool (near the centre) to the edge
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Produces relatively wide, shallow weld beads

 Certain elements are surface active and segregate preferentially to

the surface of the liquid metal and lower the surface tension
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Sulphur and oxygen are common surface active elements

 Any increase in temperature reduces the surface concentration of
the elements and increases the surface tension
 If initial surface active elements are high enough the (dγ/dT)
becomes positive
 The product, (dγ/dT)(dT/dr) = dγ/dr, is now negative, and the
surface tension force acts inwards
 Heat is transferred effectively to the bottom of the weld pool and
produces deep, narrow welds
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Convergent Marangoni flow in a weld pool

Weld metal/fusion zone

 The effect of several dopants on the d/w ratio of gas tungsten arc
welds
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Mass flow due to the arc force

 The arc creates a stream of gas, the plasma jet
 The impingement of the plasma jet on the weld pool tends to
depress the centre of the weld pool, creating a crater
 The pressure by the plasma jet is assumed to increase penetration
depth
 The weld d/w ratio is increased since energy is deposited further
 The arc force is resisted by surface tension forces on the weld
pool surface
Weld metal/fusion zone

 A stationary arc (a)

 Travelling arc, transport liquid from the front to the rear of the
weld (b)
 Strong pressure gradient may push liquid under arc down to the
bottom of the pool (c)
Weld metal/fusion zone
 The arc force is related to the welding current
 The influence of arc current on the maximum arc force in argon-
shielded gas tungsten arcs with different electrode tip angles
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Finger-like penetration observed in argon shielded weld pools due

to arc force
Weld metal/fusion zone

 The arc force of helium shielded arcs is significantly lower than

that of argon shielded arcs
Weld metal/fusion zone

 In manual welding with a coated electrode, the arc force maintain

the liquid weld metal in position
 In vertical upward and overhead welding, the arc force acts to
counteract gravity
 High-speed, high current gas tungsten arc and gas metal arc
welds produces a hump in the centre of the weld bead to form
irregular weld bead
Weld metal/fusion zone

 At low and moderate welding currents, the plasma jet is modest,

about 2.5 x 10-3 N at 100 A
 300 to 350 A is sufficient to overcome the forces of surface
tension and gravity and blow the metal partly out of its groove
 A humped weld bead forms above a critical welding speed, This
critical speed is decreased with
• Lower current
• Shorter arc length
• Using He-based shielding gas
• Angling the electrode to point in a forward direction or using a
blunt electrode
Weld metal/fusion zone

• Deflecting the arc in a forward direction by means of a magnetic

field
 Other factors that may influence the bead profile
 Gravity, buoyancy forces and electromagnetic forces
 Gravity has effect in the vertical, horizontal-vertical and overhead
positions but not flat position
 Buoyancy forces arise because the outer regions of the pool are
colder and denser
 Magnetic forces are generated by the interaction of the welding
current with Its own magnetic field
Weld metal/fusion zone

 This self-induced magnetic force influences welding

 The deflection of the arc by an asymmetric magnetic field is
called arc blow
 Also, local interactions in the liquid metal at the tip of the
electrode, in the arc itself, and in the weld pool
 Calculated mass flow pattern induced in a weld pool by
Interaction between the electric current and its own magnetic
field, is inward across the surface
 Called poloidal or meridional
 Or designated convergent
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Weld metal solidification

 Critical metallurgical factors and welding conditions lead to the
development of the weld microstructure
 The weld macrostructure incorporates grain orientations and
geometry
 The weld structure and properties is dependent on
microsegregation, the partitioning of alloying elements and
impurities
Weld metal/fusion zone
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Macrostructure and microstructure

Weld metal/fusion zone

 General solidification principles

 The solidification of a metal or alloy
• The formation of stable solid nuclei in the melt
 The growth of these nuclei into crystals (grains) and the
formation of a grain
 The two main mechanisms are homogeneous nucleation and
heterogeneous nucleation
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Homogeneous nucleation
 Homogeneous nucleation in a liquid melt occurs when the metal
itself provides the atoms to form nuclei
 A metal cooled below its equilibrium freezing temperature
produce numerous homogeneous nuclei created by atoms bonding
together
 This usually requires a considerable amount of undercooling
 A nucleus must reach a critical size to be stable
 A cluster of atoms bonded together less than the critical size is
called an embryo
Weld metal/fusion zone

 One larger than the critical size is called a nucleus

 Embryos are continually being formed and redissolved in the
molten metal due to agitation of the atoms
 Two kinds of energy changes must be considered
 The volume (bulk) free energy released by the liquid to solid
transformation (∆Gv)
 The surface energy required to form the new solid surfaces of the
solidified particles (∆Gs)
 The driving force for the liquid-to-solid transformation is the
difference in the volume free energy, ∆Gv
Weld metal/fusion zone

 The volume free energy change for a nucleus with radius r is


Weld metal/fusion zone

 The energy required to form the surface of the particles oppose

the formation of embryos and nuclei
 The energy needed to create a 2surface of a spherical particle, ∆Gs
∆ 𝐺𝑠 =4 𝜋 𝑟 𝛾
 The total free energy which is the sum of the volume free energy
and the surface free energy changes

 Both embryos and nuclei lowers the energy of the system

 The critical radius, r*, is a function of the amount of
undercooling, ∆T
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Critical radius of copper nuclei as a function of the degree of

undercooling
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Heterogeneous nucleation
 Heterogeneous nucleation is nucleation that occurs in a liquid on
existing surfaces
 The existing surfaces lower the critical free energy required to
form a stable nucleus
 The total free energy change for the formation of a stable nucleus
will be lower
 The critical size of the nucleus will be smaller
 A smaller amount of undercooling is required to form a stable
nucleus
Weld metal/fusion zone

 The nuclei grow into crystals or grains

 When solidification is completed, the crystals join together in
different orientations and form grain boundaries
 The number of nucleation sites available to the freezing metal
will affect the grain structure
 Few solidification sites available produce coarse grained structure
 A fine grain structure will result from more nucleation sites
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Two major types of grain structure are usually produced

 Equiaxed grains (the grains grow approximately equally in all
directions)
 Columnar grains (long, thin grains that are formed in the presence
of a steep temperature gradient)
 Solidification theories available have been developed to describe
solidification during ingot casting
 The major differences between weld solidification and ingot
solidification are
Weld metal/fusion zone

 The weld pool contains impurities

 Dilution of the filler metal with molten base metal changes the
composition of the weld
 Considerable turbulence occurs in weld metal, therefore good
mixing takes place in the molten metal
 The molten metal volume is small compared with the size of the
mould
 The compositions of the molten metal and the mould (base metal)
are usually similar
 There are large temperature gradients across the liquid weld
metal
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Since the heat source moves, weld solidification is a dynamic

process and solidification is dependent on the welding speed
 In high energy welds or multiple-pass welds where the base metal
is preheated, temperature gradients and solidification behaviour
are affected
 Weld pool solidification
 The weld pool is seen as a moving solid-liquid interface that
consumes solid in the front half of the pool and solidifies it in the
back half
Weld metal/fusion zone

 The weld pool solidification structure is characterised by a

microstructure that depends on chemistry and cooling rate
conditions
 Weld pool shape and travel speed
 Solidification structures depend on interplay between welding
parameters and solidification conditions
 Increasing travelling speed results in the shape of the weld pool
change from roughly oval to elliptical to tear-drop shaped
 This change in weld pool shape promotes a change in the
solidification rate, R, within the weld pool
Weld metal/fusion zone

 This change has important consequences on the microstructure

and toughness of welds
 A low welding speed produces oval to elliptical weld pool shape
 A high welding speed produces tear-drop shaped which brings
abrupt changes
 Abrupt changes in direction can be detrimental to the toughness
of welds due to the increased risk of segregation at the weld
centerline
Weld metal/fusion zone

 The effect of welding speed on the shape of the melt

Axial
grain
Weld metal/fusion zone

 The welding speed of 6 mm/s on (Ti + Nb) FSS

Weld metal/fusion zone

 The welding speed of 1 mm/s on (Ti) FSS

Weld metal/fusion zone

 The welding speed of 1 mm/s (Ti + Nb) FSS

Weld metal/fusion zone

 Epitaxial solidification
 Weld solidification does not necessarily require nucleation prior
to growth of the solid interface
 The liquid atoms need only assume positions to the extension of
the crystal lattice of the adjacent solid
 The crystals of the weld metal are derived from the crystals of the
base metal – epitaxial solidification
 The energy barrier ΔG for the crystal to nucleate is
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Where γLC is the surface energy of the liquid –crystal

 If the liquid wets surface completely, θ = 0, ΔG = 0
 The crystal can nucleate on the substrate without having to
overcome any energy barrier
 Since the liquid metal of the weld pool is in intimate
contact with these substrate grains, θ = 0
 Nucleation of crystals on base metal has no difficulty
 This occurs most when welding without a filler metal
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Epitaxial solidification
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Epitaxial solidification
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Nonepitaxial solidification
 When welding with a filler metal or joining two different
materials
 Weld metal composition and crystal structure can differ from that
of the base metal
 Nonepitaxial grow occurs since new grains will have to
nucleate at the fusion boundary
Weld metal/fusion zone

 Heterogeneous Nucleation
 Foreign particles present in the weld pool can act as nucleation
sites for new crystals to grow