physiology

The Digestive System

ADAL MEDICAL UNIVERSITY
Dr. Abdirahman muse Farah
Functions of the Digestive System

 Digestion
 Breakdown of ingested food
 Absorption
 Passage of nutrients into the blood
 Metabolism
 Production of cellular energy (ATP)
 Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract
• A continuous, hollow coiled tube that
digests food, breaks it down, and absorbs
the fragments through its lining into the
blood
Organs of the Digestive System

Figure 14.1
Processes of the Digestive System

 1. Ingestion – getting food into the

mouth
 2. Food breakdown –(Propulsion) –
moving foods from one region of the
digestive system to another

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Processes of the Digestive System

 Mechanical digestion
 Mixing of food in the mouth by the tongue
 Churning of food in the stomach
 Segmentation in the small intestine

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Processes of the Digestive System

 Chemical Digestion
 Enzymes break down food molecules into
their building blocks
 Each major food group uses different
enzymes
 Carbohydrates are broken to simple sugars
 Proteins are broken to amino acids
 Fats are broken to fatty acids and alcohols
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Processes of the Digestive System

3. Food movement
 Peristalsis – alternating
waves of contraction
 Segmentation – moving
materials back and forth
to aid in mixing

Figure 14.12
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Processes of the Digestive System

 4. Absorption
 End products of digestion are absorbed in
the blood or lymph
 Food must enter mucosal cells and then
into blood or lymph capillaries
 5. Defecation
 Elimination of indigestible substances as
feces
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Processes of the Digestive System

Figure 14.11
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Classification of digestive system
• Digestive system could be classified
digestive track or alimentary track( gut) and
accessory organs.
Digestive track
Mouth to anus
 Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
 Lips (labia) – protect
the anterior opening
 Cheeks – form the
lateral walls
 Hard palate – forms
the anterior roof
 Soft palate – forms
the posterior roof
 Uvula – fleshy
projection of the Figure 14.2a

soft palate
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 Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
 Vestibule – space
between lips externally
and teeth and gums
internally
 Tongue – attached at
hyoid & styloid processes,
and by the lingual
frenulum
 Frenulum- mem-brane
that secures the tongue
to the floor of the mouth;
limits movement
Figure 14.2a

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 Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy

 Tonsils
 Palatine tonsils
 Lingual tonsil

Figure 14.2a

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 Processes of the Mouth

 Mastication (chewing) of food

(mechanical digestion)
 Mixing masticated food with saliva
(chemical digestion)
 Initiation of swallowing by the tongue
 Allowing for the sense of taste

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 Pharynx Function
 Serves as a passageway for air and
food
 Food is propelled to the esophagus by
two muscle layers
 Food movement is by alternating
contractions of the muscle layers
(peristalsis)

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 Esophagus

 Runs from pharynx to stomach through

the diaphragm
 Conducts food by peristalsis
(slow rhythmic squeezing)
 Passageway for food only (respiratory
system branches off after the pharynx)

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Figure 24.10 The Esophagus

Figure 24.10a-c
The Swallowing Process

Figure 24.11a-h
 Stomach Anatomy
 Located on the left side of the
abdominal cavity (~10 in long)
 When full holds about 1 gallon of food
 Food enters at the cardioesophageal
sphincter
 Food exits at the pyloric sphincter
(valve) btwn stomach & small intestine

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 Stomach Anatomy

Figure 14.4a

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Structure of the Stomach Mucosa

Figure 14.4b, c

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 Stomach Functions
 Acts as a storage tank for food
 Site of food breakdown
 Chemical breakdown of protein begins
 Delivers chyme (processed food) to the
small intestine
 Produces 2-3L/day of gastric juice (HCl,
enzymes, & mucus)
 Regulated by neural & hormonal factors
 Diseases and Disorders
• Heartburn – occurs when the cardio-esophageal
sphincter fails to close tightly, and gastric juice
backs up into the esophagus
• Hiatal hernia – superior part of the stomach
protrudes above the diaphragm allowing juices to
go into the esophagus
• Vomiting – reverse movement of food, brought
about by a signal from the medulla
• It takes 4 hours for the stomach
to empty after a well-balanced
meal and 6 hours for a fatty
meal
 Small Intestine
(4-8 hrs)
 The body’s major digestive organ
 Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
 Muscular tube extending from the
pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve
 Suspended from the posterior
abdominal wall by the mesentery

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Subdivisions of the Small Intestine
“Dogs Just Itch!
 Duodenum
 Attached to the stomach
 Curves around the pancreas (10 in)
 Jejunum
 Attaches to the duodenum (8 ft long)
 Ileum
 Extends from jejunum to ileocecal valve of
large intestine (12 ft long)
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Regions of the Small Intestine

Figure 24.16a
 Chemical Digestion in the Small
Intestine

 Source of enzymes that are mixed with

chyme
Intestinal cells
Pancreas
 Bile enters from the gall bladder

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 Chemical Digestion in the Small
Intestine

Figure 14.6

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 Villi of the Small Intestine

 Fingerlike
structures formed
by the mucosa
 Give the small
intestine more
surface area

Figure 14.7a

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Microvilli of the Small Intestine

 Small projections of the

plasma membrane
 Found on absorptive cells

Figure 14.7c

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 Structures Involved in Absorption
of Nutrients

 Absorptive cells
 Blood capillaries

Figure 14.7b

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 Digestion in the Small Intestine

 Break double sugars into simple sugars

 Complete some protein digestion
 Help complete digestion of starch
 Carry out about half of all protein digestion

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 Digestion in the Small Intestine
(help from the pancreas)

 Pancreatic enzymes play the major

digestive function
 Responsible for fat digestion (lipase)
 Digest nucleic acids (nucleases)
 Alkaline content neutralizes acidic chyme
 Produce insulin

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 Absorption in the Small Intestine
 Water is absorbed along the length of
the small intestine

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 Propulsion in the Small Intestine

 Peristalsis is the major means of moving

food
 Segmental movements
 Mix chyme with digestive juices
 Aid in propelling food

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Figure 24.4 Peristalsis

Figure 24.4
Large Intestine (12-24 hrs.)

 Larger in diameter, but shorter than the

small intestine
 Frames the internal abdomen

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Large Intestine

Figure 14.8

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 Functions of the Large Intestine

 Absorption of water
 Eliminates indigestible food from the
body as feces
 Does not participate in digestion of food

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 Structures of the Large Intestine
 Ileocecal valve – btwn small & large
intestine
 Cecum – saclike 1st part of the large
intestine
 Appendix
Accumulation of lymphatic tissue that
sometimes becomes inflamed
(appendicitis)
Hangs from the cecum
 Structures of the Large Intestine

 Colon
 Ascending – travels up the right side
 Transverse – travel across abdomin
 Descending – travels down the left side
 Sigmoidal colon (aka pelvic colon)
 Rectum – holding area before release of
fecal material
 Anus – external body opening
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 Food Breakdown and Absorption in
the Large Intestine
 No digestive enzymes are produced
 Resident bacteria digest remaining
nutrients
 Produce some vitamin K and B
 Release gases
 Water and vitamins K and B are absorbed
 Remaining materials are eliminated via
feces
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 Propulsion in the Large Intestine
 Sluggish peristalsis
 Mass movements
 Slow, powerful movements
 Occur three to four times per day
 Presence of feces in the rectum causes
a defecation reflex
 Internal anal sphincter is relaxed
 Defecation occurs with relaxation of the
voluntary (external) anal sphincter
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Digestive Secretion and Absorption of Water
 Diseases and Disorders
• Diarrhea – results when water is not
sufficiently absorbed by large intestine (can
be due to bacteria)
• Constipation – results when too much water
is absorbed by the large intestine
 Accessory Digestive Organs

 Salivary glands
 Teeth
 Pancreas
 Liver
 Gall bladder

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 Salivary Glands

 Saliva-producing glands
 Parotid glands – located anterior to ears
(mumps is inflammation of the parotis
glands)
 Submandibular glands
 Sublingual glands

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Mumps
 Saliva

 Aids in chemical digestion

 Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
 Contains salivary amylase to begin
starch digestion
 Dissolves chemicals so they can be
tasted

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 Teeth

 The role is to masticate (chew) food

 Aids in mechanical digestion
 Humans have two sets of teeth
 Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth
 20 teeth are fully formed by age two

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 Teeth

 Permanent teeth
 Replace deciduous teeth beginning
between the ages of 6 to 12
 A full set is 32 teeth, but some people do
not have wisdom teeth
 Teech are named according to their main
function

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 Classification of Teeth

 Incisors
 Canines
 Premolars
 Molars

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Classification of Teeth

Figure 14.9

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 Regions of a Tooth
 Crown – exposed part
(hardest substance in
the body)
 Outer enamel
 Dentin
 Pulp cavity
 Neck
 Region in contact with
the gum
 Connects crown to
root
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 Regions of a Tooth

 Root
 Periodontal
membrane
attached to the
bone
 Root canal carrying
blood vessels and
nerves

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 Pancreas
 Produces a wide spectrum of digestive
enzymes that break down all categories of food
 Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum
 Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes
neutralizes acidic chyme
 Endocrine products of pancreas
 Insulin

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Figure 24.18 The Pancreas

Figure 24.18a-c
 Liver
 Largest gland in the body
 Located on the right side of the body
under the diaphragm
 Consists of four lobes suspended from
the diaphragm and abdominal wall by
the falciform ligament
 Connected to the gall bladder via the
common hepatic duct
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The Anatomy of the Liver

Figure 24.19a
Bile

 Produced by cells in the liver

 Composition
 Bile salts
 Bile pigment (mostly bilirubin from the
breakdown of hemoglobin)
 Cholesterol
 Phospholipids
 Electrolytes
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 Role of the Liver in Metabolism

 Several roles in digestion

 Detoxifies drugs and alcohol
 Degrades hormones
 Produce cholesterol, blood proteins
(clotting proteins)
 Plays a central role in metabolism

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 Metabolism

• Metabolism – chemical reactions that are

necessary to maintain life
– Catabolism – substances are broken down,
energy released and captured to make ATP
– Anabolism – small molecules come together to
form larger molecules
 How to maintain blood glucose
(sugar) levels…
• Blood circulates through the liver and
glucose is removed. If the body has an
abundance, glucose is made into gycogen.
This is called glycogenesis.
• If the body is low on sugar, the liver will
break down the glycogen into sugar. This is
called glycogenolysis.
 Carbohydrate metabolism
• Cellular respiration – glucose is broken
down, releasing chemical energy to form
ATP
• Glucose + O2 = CO2 + H20 + ATP
• If too much sugar is in the blood, it si
converted to FAT!
 Fat metabolism
• Most of it occurs in the liver
• Fat is broken down into acetic acid. Then it
is oxidized and CO2, H2O, and ATP are
formed.
• This occurs when there are low amounts of
sugar in the blood.
 Protein metabolism
• Amino acids (make up proteins) are used to
make ATP only when proteins are over
abundant or carbs. and fats are not
available.
• Amino acids are oxidized and ammonia
(NH3) is given off (secreted). The rest if the
amino acids enter the citric acid cycle.
Gall Bladder

 Sac found in hollow part of the liver

 Stores bile from the liver
 Bile is introduced into the duodenum in
the presence of fatty food
 Gallstones can cause blockages

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The Gallbladder

Figure 24.21a, b
 Diseases and Disorders
• Gallstones occur when bile is stored for too
long and fat crystallizes
• Jaundice – bile enters the blood stream and
tissues become yellow
 Diseases and Disorders
• PKU – inability to use amino acids in food;
can cause brain damage and mental
retardation
• Gastroenteritis – inflammation of the
gastrointestinal tract; can be caused by
contaminated food
 Diseases and Disorders
• Appendicitis – inflammation of the
appendix
• Ulcer – lesion or erosion of mucus
membrane, exposed to secretions of the
stomach
THE END