1

Why do we need computer

networks?
Computer networks help users on the
network to share the and
resources
communication. in
Can you imagine a world now without
emails, online newspapers, blogs, chat and
the other services offered by the internet?

2
Data Communication
When we communicate, we are sharing
information. This sharing can be local or remote.
Between individuals, local communication usually
occurs face to face, while remote communication
takes place over distance.

3
Characteristics of data
communication
⚫Delivery- the system must deliver
the data to the correct destination
⚫Accuracy-the system must deliver
the data accurately.
⚫Timelines- the system must deliver
data in timely manner
⚫Jitter-It refers to the variation in
the packet arrival time.

4
Components of data communication

5
Components of data communication
⚫ Message- it is the information to be
communicated
⚫ Sender-it is the device that sends the
message
⚫ Receiver-it is the device that receives the
message
⚫ Transmission Medium- it is physical path
through the data travels from the sender to
the reciver.
⚫ Protocol-it is set of rules that govern data
communications.

6
Data representation
Information today comes in different
forms such as
⚫text
⚫numbers
⚫images
⚫audio and
⚫video.

7
Data Flow
⚫Communication between two devices
can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-
duplex

8
Simplex mode
⚫In simplex mode, the communication is
unidirectional, as on a one-way street.
Only one of the two devices on a link can
transmit; the other can only receive (see
Figure a). Keyboards and traditional
monitors are examples of simplex devices.

9
Half-duplex
⚫In half-duplex mode, each station can
both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time. When one device is sending,
the other can only receive, and vice
versa . The half-duplex mode is like a
one-lane road with traffic allowed in both
directions.

10
Full -Duplex
⚫In full-duplex both stations can transmit
and receive simultaneously.
⚫One common example of full-duplex
communication is the telephone network.
When two people are communicating by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at
the same time.

11
Computer Networks
⚫Anetwork is a setof devices
referred to (often as nodes)
communicationconnected
links. A by
node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.

12
Distributed Processing
⚫Most networks use distributed processing,
in which a task is divided among multiple
computers. Instead of one single large
machine being responsible for all aspects
of a process, separate computers
(usually a personal computer or
workstation) handle a subset.

13
Network criteria
⚫A network must be able to meet a certain
number of criteria. The most important of
these are performance, reliability, and
security.

14
Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways,
including transit time and response time.
⚫ Transit time is the amount of time required
for a message to travel from one device to
another.
⚫ Response time is the elapsed time between
an inquiry and a response.
⚫ The performance of a network depends on a
number of factors, including the number of
users, the type of transmission medium, the
capabilities of the connected hardware, and
the efficiency of the software..
15
Reliability
⚫network reliability is measured by the
frequency of failure, the time it takes a
link to recover from a failure, and the
network's robustness in a catastrophe.

16
Security
⚫Network security issues include protecting
data from unauthorized access, protecting
data from damage and development, and
implementing policies and procedures for
recovery from breaches and data losses.

17
Physical structures
⚫For communication to occur, two devices
must be connected in some way to the
same link at the same time. There are two
possible types of connections: point-to-
point and multipoint.

18
19
Point to point
⚫A point-to-point connection provides a
dedicated link between two devices. The
entire capacity of the link is reserved for
transmission between those two devices.
⚫When you change television channels by
infrared remote control, you are
establishing a point-to-point connection
between the remote control and the
television's control system.

20
Multipoint
⚫A multipoint (also called multidrop)
connection is one in which more than two
specific devices share a single link.
⚫ In a multipoint environment, the
capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatially or temporally.
⚫If several devices can use the link
simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection. If users must take turns, it is a
timeshared connection.
21
Topology
⚫A Network Topology is the arrangement
with which computer systems
or network devices are connected to each
other.
⚫The topology of a network is
geometric representation of the
relationship of all the links and linking
the
devices (usually called nodes) to one
another.

22
Physical Topology
⚫Physical topology refers to the way in
which a network is laid out physically.
One or more devices connect to a link;
two or more links form a topology.

23
Mesh Topology
⚫In a mesh topology, every device has a
dedicated point-to-point link to every
other device.
⚫The term dedicated means that the link
carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.
⚫In other words, we can say that in a mesh
topology, we need n(n -1) /2 duplex-mode
links.
24
25
Advantages
⚫ The use of dedicated links guarantees that each
connection can carry its own data load, thus eliminating
the traffic problems that can occur when links must be
shared by multiple devices.

⚫ A mesh topology is robust. If one link

becomes
unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire system.

⚫ Third, there is the advantage of privacy or security.

When every message travels along a dedicated line, only
the intended recipient sees it.
26
Disadvantages
⚫ The amount of cabling because every device must be
connected to every other device, installation and
reconnection are difficult.

⚫ Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than

the available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can
accommodate. Finally, the hardware required to connect
each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively
expensive.

27
Star Topology
⚫ Each device has a dedicated point-to-point
link only to a central controller, usually
called a hub.
⚫ The devices are not directly linked to one
another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star
topology does not allow direct traffic
between devices.
⚫ The controller acts as an exchange: If one
device wants to send data to another, it sends
the data to the controller, which then relays
the data to the other connected device .
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29
Advantages
⚫ It is easy to install and reconfigure. Far less cabling
needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions
involve only one connection: between that device and
the hub.

⚫ Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails,

only that link is affected. All other links remain active.
This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification
and fault isolation. As long as the hub is working, it can
be used to monitor link problems and bypass defective
links.

30
Disadvantages
⚫ The dependency of the whole topology on one single
point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system
is dead.

⚫ Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each

node must be linked to a central hub. For this reason,
often more cabling is required in a star than in some
other topologies (such as ring or bus).

31
Bus Topology
⚫ A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint.
One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the
devices in a network running between the device
and the main cable.

32
⚫Nodes are connected to the bus cable by
drop lines and taps.
⚫A drop line is a connection running
between the device and the main cable.
⚫A tap is a connector that either splices into
the main cable or punctures the sheathing
of a cable to create a contact with the
metallic core.

33
Advantages & Disadvantages
⚫Ease of installation. Backbone cable can
be laid along the most efficient path, then
connected to the nodes by drop lines of
various lengths. In this way, a bus uses
less cabling than mesh or star topologies.

⚫Disadvantages include difficult

reconnection and fault isolation.

34
Ring Topology
⚫ In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-
point connection with only the two devices on either
side of it.
⚫ A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from
device to device, until it reaches its destination. Each
device in the ring incorporates a repeater.

35
⚫When a device receives a signal intended
for another device, its repeater regenerates
the bits and passes them along.
⚫A ring is relatively easy to install and
reconfigure. Each device is linked to only
its immediate neighbors (either physically
or logically).

36
Advantages
⚫ To add or delete a device requires changing
only two connections.
⚫ The only constraints are media and traffic
considerations (maximum ring length and
number of devices).
⚫ In addition, fault isolation is simplified.
Generally in a ring, a signal is circulating at
all times.
⚫ If one device does not receive a signal within
a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The
alarm alerts the network operator to the
problem and its location
37
Disadvantage
⚫However, unidirectional traffic can be a
disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in
the ring (such as a disabled station) can
disable the entire network.

38
Hybrid Topology
⚫A combination of two or more topology is
known as hybrid topology. For example a
combination of star and mesh topology is
known as hybrid topology.

39
40
Advantages
⚫ We can the topology based on the
choose example, scalability is
requirementfor
concern then we can use star topology instead
our of
bus
technology.

⚫ Scalable as we can further connect other

computer networks with the existing networks
with different topologies.

41
Disadvantages
⚫Fault detection is difficult.
⚫Installation is difficult.
⚫Design is complex so maintenance is
high thus expensive.

42
MAC Address
⚫ MAC Address: MAC addresses are assigned directly by
the hardware manufacturer, they are also referred to as
hardware addresses. With Microsoft Windows, the MAC
address is referred to as the physical address.
⚫ MAC addresses in LAN or WLAN networks consist of 6
bytes (48 bits) and are written in hexadecimal notation.
The use of separators such as hyphens or colons between
two bytes increases readability.

43
IP Address
⚫ An IP address identifies a device on the global
internet. An IPv4 address consists of 32 bits,
usually written as four decimal numbers, or a
dotted quad.

⚫ Possible values range from 000.000.000.000

through 255.255.255.255, although many
possible addresses are disallowed or reserved for
specific purposes.

44
45
46
Network Terminologies
⚫Repeater- A repeater at
operates physical layer. the
⚫Its job is to regenerate the signal over the
same network before the signal becomes
too weak or corrupted so as to extend the
length to which the signal can be
transmitted over the same network.

47
⚫Hub – A hub is basically a multiport
repeater.
⚫A hub connects multiple wires coming
from different branches, for example, the
connector in star topology which connects
different stations.
⚫ Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets
are sent to all connected devices.

48
⚫Bridge – A bridge operates at data link
layer.
⚫A bridge is a repeater, with add on the
functionality of filtering content by
reading the MAC addresses of source and
destination.
⚫It is also used for interconnecting two
LANs working on the same protocol.
⚫It has a single input and single output port,
thus making it a 2 port device.

49
⚫ Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with
a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency(a large number of ports imply less
traffic) and performance.

⚫A switch is a data link layer device. The switch

can perform error checking before forwarding
data, that makes it very efficient as it does not
forward packets that have errors and forward
good packets selectively to correct port only.

⚫ In other words, switch divides collision domain

of hosts, but broadcast domain remains same.

50
⚫ Routers – A router is a device like a switch that
routes data packets based on their IP addresses.

⚫ Router is mainly a Network Layer

device. Routers normally connect
together
LANs and
and have aWANsdynamically
routing updating based on which
decisions table
on routing
they themake
data packets.

⚫ Router divide broadcast of hosts

domains connected through it.

51
⚫ Gateway-Itis a passage to connect two networks
together that may work upon different
networking models.

⚫ They basically work as the messenger agents

that take data from one system, interpret it, and
transfer it to another system.

⚫ Gateways are also called protocol converters

and can operate at any network layer. Gateways
are generally more complex than switch or
router.
52
53
Categories of networks
⚫LAN(LocalArea Network)
⚫WAN(Wide Area Network)
⚫MAN(Metropolitan Area
Network)

54
Local Area Network
⚫ Local area networks, generally called LANs, are
privately-owned networks within a single building or
campus of up to a few kilometres in size.

⚫ They are widely used to connect personal computers and

workstations in company offices and factories to share
resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information.

⚫ LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by

three characteristics: (1) Their size, (2) Their
transmission technology, and (3) Their topology

55
56
⚫ Local Area Network is a group of computers connected
to each other in a small area such as building, office.

⚫ LAN is used for connecting two or more personal

computers through a communication medium such as
twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.

⚫ It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware

such as hubs, network adapters, and ethernet cables.

⚫ The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in

Local Area Network. Local Area Network provides
higher security.

57
Metropolitan Area Network
⚫A metropolitan area network, or MAN,
covers a city. The best-known example of
a MAN is the cable television network
available in many cities.

58
59
⚫ A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a
larger geographic area by interconnecting a different
LAN to form a larger network.

⚫ Government agencies use MAN to connect to the

citizens and private industries.

⚫ In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other

through a telephone exchange line.

⚫ The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232,

Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.It has a
higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

60
Uses of MAN
⚫MAN is used in communication
between the banks in a city.
⚫It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
⚫It can be used in a college within a city.
⚫It can also be used for communication
in the military.

61
Wide Area Network
⚫ A wide area or WAN, spans a
network, geographical large acountry or
area, often
contains a collection of machines
continent.
intended
It for running
user (i.e., application) programs. These machines are
called as hosts. The hosts are connected by a
communication subnet, or just subnet for short.

62
63
⚫ A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large
geographical area such as states or countries.

⚫ A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.

⚫ A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it

spans over a large geographical area through a telephone line,
fibre optic cable or satellite links.

⚫ The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.

⚫ A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business,

government, and education.

64
Why Protocol is needed?
⚫ consider the process of mailing a letter. On the envelope,
addresses are written in the following order: name,
street address, city, state, and zip code.
⚫ If an envelope is dropped into a mailbox with the zip
code written first, followed by the street address,
followed by the state, and so on, the post office won't
deliver it.
⚫ There is an agreed-upon protocol for writing addresses
in order for the postal system to work. In the same way,
all IP data packets must present certain information in a
certain order, and all IP addresses follow a standardized
format.

65
Protocols
⚫Aprotocol is a set of rules that
govern data communications. A
protocolis communicated,
what defines it is
how
communicated, and it is
when communicated.
⚫The key elements of a protocol are
syntax, semantics, and timing.

66
Syntax
⚫The term syntax refers to the structure or
format of the data, meaning the order in
which they are presented.
⚫ For example, a simple protocol might
expect the first 8 bits of data to be the
address of the sender, the second 8 bits to
be the address of the receiver, and the rest
of the stream to be the message itself.

67
Semantics
⚫Semantics. The word semantics refers to
the meaning of each section of bits.
⚫ How is a particular pattern to be
interpreted, and what action is to be taken
based on that interpretation?
⚫For example, does an address identify the
route to be taken or the final destination of
the message?

68
Timing
⚫The term timing refers to two
characteristics: when data should be sent
and how fast they can be sent.
⚫For example, if a sender produces data
at
100 Mbps but the receiver can process
data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will
overload the receiver and some data will
be lost.

69
Internet
⚫The Internet the global system of
interconnected
is computer that
networks
use the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to
link devices worldwide.

70
Internet, Intranet and Extranet
⚫Internet is global communication
accessed through the Web.
⚫Intranet is shared content accessed by
members within a single organization.
⚫Extranet is shared content accessed by
groups through cross-enterprise
boundaries.

71
Intranet
⚫An intranet is a private computer network
that uses Internet network
protocols,
connectivity, and possibly the public
telecommunication system to securely
share part of an organization’s information
or operations with its employees.

72
Extranet
⚫An extranet is an intranet that can be
partially accessed by authorized outside
users, enabling businesses to exchange
information over the Internet securely.

73
Internet, Intranet and Extranet

74
Internet Protocol
⚫ Internet Protocol (IP) – a set of rules that
dictate how data should be delivered over the
public network (Internet).

⚫ The Internet Protocol (IP) is a protocol, or

set of rules, for routing and addressing
packets of data so that they can travel across
networks and arrive at the correct
destination.

⚫ Datatraversing the Internet is divided into

smaller pieces, called packets.
75
TCP-Transmission Control
Protocol
⚫ TCP is a connection oriented protocol and offers end-to-
end packet delivery. It acts as back bone for connection.

⚫ TCP is a reliable and connection oriented protocol.

⚫ TCP ensures reliability by sequencing bytes with a

forwarding acknowledgement number that indicates to
the destination the next byte the source expect to
receive.

⚫ It retransmits the bytes not acknowledged with in

specified time period.
76
UDP-User Datagram Protocol
⚫UDP is connectionless and unreliable
protocol.
⚫It doesn’t require making a connection
with the host to exchange data.
⚫ Since UDP is unreliable protocol, there
is no mechanism for ensuring that data
sent is received.

77
78
79
MAC Address
⚫ MAC Address: MAC addresses are assigned directly by
the hardware manufacturer, they are also referred to as
hardware addresses. With Microsoft Windows, the MAC
address is referred to as the physical address.
⚫ MAC addresses in LAN or WLAN networks consist of 6
bytes (48 bits) and are written in hexadecimal notation.
The use of separators such as hyphens or colons between
two bytes increases readability.

80
IP Address
⚫ An IP address identifies a device on the global
internet. An IPv4 address consists of 32 bits,
usually written as four decimal numbers, or a
dotted quad.

⚫ Possible values range from 000.000.000.000

through 255.255.255.255, although many
possible addresses are disallowed or reserved for
specific purposes.

81
Network Terminologies
⚫Repeater- A repeater at
operates physical layer. the
⚫Its job is to regenerate the signal over the
same network before the signal becomes
too weak or corrupted so as to extend the
length to which the signal can be
transmitted over the same network.

82
83
84
85
⚫Hub – A hub is basically a multiport
repeater.
⚫A hub connects multiple wires coming
from different branches, for example, the
connector in star topology which connects
different stations.
⚫ Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets
are sent to all connected devices.

86
87
⚫ Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with
a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency(a large number of ports imply less
traffic) and performance.

⚫A switch is a data link layer device. The switch

can perform error checking before forwarding
data, that makes it very efficient as it does not
forward packets that have errors and forward
good packets selectively to correct port only.

⚫ In other words, switch divides collision domain

of hosts, but broadcast domain remains same.

88
89
90
⚫Bridge – A bridge operates at data link
layer.
⚫A bridge is a repeater, with add on the
functionality of filtering content by
reading the MAC addresses of source and
destination.
⚫It is also used for interconnecting two
LANs working on the same protocol.
⚫It has a single input and single output port,
thus making it a 2 port device.

91
92
⚫ Routers – A router is a device like a switch that
routes data packets based on their IP addresses.

⚫ Router is mainly a Network Layer

device. Routers normally connect
together
LANs and
and have aWANsdynamically
routing updating based on which
decisions table
on routing
they themake
data packets.

⚫ Router divide broadcast of hosts

domains connected through it.

93
94
⚫ Gateway-Itis a passage to connect two networks
together that may work upon different
networking models.

⚫ They basically work as the messenger agents

that take data from one system, interpret it, and
transfer it to another system.

⚫ Gateways are also called protocol converters

and can operate at any network layer. Gateways
are generally more complex than switch or
router.
95
96
Categories of networks
⚫LAN(LocalArea Network)
⚫WAN(Wide Area Network)
⚫MAN(Metropolitan Area
Network)

97
Local Area Network
⚫ Local area networks, generally called LANs, are
privately-owned networks within a single building or
campus of up to a few kilometres in size.

⚫ They are widely used to connect personal computers and

workstations in company offices and factories to share
resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information.

⚫ LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by

three characteristics: (1) Their size, (2) Their
transmission technology, and (3) Their topology

98
99
⚫ Local Area Network is a group of computers connected
to each other in a small area such as building, office.

⚫ LAN is used for connecting two or more personal

computers through a communication medium such as
twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.

⚫ It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware

such as hubs, network adapters, and ethernet cables.

⚫ The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in

Local Area Network. Local Area Network provides
higher security.

100
Metropolitan Area Network
⚫A metropolitan area network, or MAN,
covers a city. The best-known example of
a MAN is the cable television network
available in many cities.

101
102
⚫ A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a
larger geographic area by interconnecting a different
LAN to form a larger network.

⚫ Government agencies use MAN to connect to the

citizens and private industries.

⚫ In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other

through a telephone exchange line.

⚫ The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232,

Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.It has a
higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

103
Uses of MAN
⚫MAN is used in communication
between the banks in a city.
⚫It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
⚫It can be used in a college within a city.
⚫It can also be used for communication
in the military.

104
Wide Area Network
⚫ A wide area or WAN, spans a
network, geographical large acountry or
area, often
contains a collection of machines
continent.
intended
It for running
user (i.e., application) programs. These machines are
called as hosts. The hosts are connected by a
communication subnet, or just subnet for short.

105
106
⚫ A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large
geographical area such as states or countries.

⚫ A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.

⚫ A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it

spans over a large geographical area through a telephone line,
fibre optic cable or satellite links.

⚫ The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.

⚫ A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business,

government, and education.

107
Why Protocol is needed?
⚫ consider the process of mailing a letter. On the envelope,
addresses are written in the following order: name,
street address, city, state, and zip code.
⚫ If an envelope is dropped into a mailbox with the zip
code written first, followed by the street address,
followed by the state, and so on, the post office won't
deliver it.
⚫ There is an agreed-upon protocol for writing addresses
in order for the postal system to work. In the same way,
all IP data packets must present certain information in a
certain order, and all IP addresses follow a standardized
format.

108
Protocols
⚫Aprotocol is a set of rules that
govern data communications. A
protocolis communicated,
what defines it is
how
communicated, and it is
when communicated.
⚫The key elements of a protocol are
syntax, semantics, and timing.

109
Syntax
⚫The term syntax refers to the structure or
format of the data, meaning the order in
which they are presented.
⚫ For example, a simple protocol might
expect the first 8 bits of data to be the
address of the sender, the second 8 bits to
be the address of the receiver, and the rest
of the stream to be the message itself.

110
Semantics
⚫Semantics. The word semantics refers to
the meaning of each section of bits.
⚫ How is a particular pattern to be
interpreted, and what action is to be taken
based on that interpretation?
⚫For example, does an address identify the
route to be taken or the final destination of
the message?

111
Timing
⚫The term timing refers to two
characteristics: when data should be sent
and how fast they can be sent.
⚫For example, if a sender produces data
at
100 Mbps but the receiver can process
data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will
overload the receiver and some data will
be lost.

112
Internet
⚫The Internet the global system of
interconnected
is computer that
networks
use the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to
link devices worldwide.

113
Internet, Intranet and Extranet
⚫Internet is global communication
accessed through the Web.
⚫Intranet is shared content accessed by
members within a single organization.
⚫Extranet is shared content accessed by
groups through cross-enterprise
boundaries.

114
Intranet
⚫An intranet is a private computer network
that uses Internet network
protocols,
connectivity, and possibly the public
telecommunication system to securely
share part of an organization’s information
or operations with its employees.

115
Internet, Intranet and Extranet

116
Internet Protocol
⚫ Internet Protocol (IP) – a set of rules that
dictate how data should be delivered over the
public network (Internet).

⚫ The Internet Protocol (IP) is a protocol, or

set of rules, for routing and addressing
packets of data so that they can travel across
networks and arrive at the correct
destination.

⚫ Datatraversing the Internet is divided into

smaller pieces, called packets.
117
TCP-Transmission Control
Protocol
⚫ TCP is a connection oriented protocol and offers end-to-
end packet delivery. It acts as back bone for connection.

⚫ TCP is a reliable and connection oriented protocol.

⚫ TCP ensures reliability by sequencing bytes with a

forwarding acknowledgement number that indicates to
the destination the next byte the source expect to
receive.

⚫ It retransmits the bytes not acknowledged with in

specified time period.
118
TCP/IP
⚫Internet
Protocol
is connectionless and unreliable protocol
⚫It ensures no guarantee of successfully
transmission of data.
⚫In order to make it reliable, it must be
paired with reliable protocol such as TCP
at the transport layer.

119
Example
⚫ When an email (using the simple mail transfer protocol
– SMTP) is sent from an email server, the TCP layer in
that server will divide the message up into
multiple packets, number them and then forward them to
the IP layer for transport.
⚫ At the IP layer, each packet will be transported to the
destination email server. While each packet is going to
the same place, the route they take to get there may be
different.
⚫ When it arrives, the IP layer hands it back to the TCP
layer, which reassembles the packets into the message
and hands it to the email application, where it shows up
in the Inbox.

120
Layers of OSI Model
⚫ OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection.
⚫ It has been developed by ISO – ‘International
Organization of Standardization‘, in the year
1984.
⚫ It is a 7 layer architecture with each layer having
specific functionality to perform.
⚫ All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the
data from one person to another across the globe.

121
Characteristics of OSI Model:

122
Characteristics of OSI Model:
⚫ The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower
layers.

⚫ The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related
issues, and they are implemented only in the software. The application
layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user and the application layer
interact with the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer
just above another layer.

⚫ The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The
data link layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and
software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is
closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible
for placing the information on the physical medium.

123
Functions of the OSI Layers

124
Physical layer

125
Functions of a Physical layer:
⚫Physical characteristics of interface
and media
⚫Representation of bits
⚫Data rate
⚫Synchronization of bits

126
Data-Link Layer

127
Functions of the Data-link layer
⚫ Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides
a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to
the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit
patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
⚫ Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link layer
adds physical addresses (MAC address) of sender and/or
receiver in the header of each frame.
⚫ Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error
control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
⚫ Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else
the data may get corrupted thus , flow control coordinates that
amount of data that can be sent before receiving acknowledgement.
⚫ Access control: When a single communication channel is
shared by multiple devices, MAC sub-layer of data link layer
helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a
given time.

128
Network Layer

129
Functions of the Network
layer
⚫ Routing: The network layer protocols
determine which route is suitable from
source to destination. This function of
network layer is known as routing.
⚫ Logical Addressing: In order to identify
each device on internetwork uniquely,
network layer defines an addressing
scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address
are placed in the header by network layer.
Such an address distinguishes each device
uniquely and universally.
130
Transport Layer

131
Functions of the transport
layer
⚫ Service-point addressing: Computers run several
programs simultaneously due to this reason, the transmission
of data from source to the destination not only from one
computer to another computer but also from one process to
another process. The transport layer adds the header that
contains the address known as a service-point address or port
address. The responsibility of the network layer is to
transmit the data from one computer to another computer
and the responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the
message to the correct process.
⚫ Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport
layer receives the message from the upper layer, it divides
the message into multiple segments, and each segment is
assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies
each segment. When the message has arrived at the
destination, then the transport layer reassembles the
message based on their sequence numbers.

132
Functions of the transport
layer
⚫ Connection control: Transport layer provides two
services Connection-oriented service and connectionless
service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an
individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to
reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes
a connection with the transport layer at the destination
machine before delivering the packets. In connection-
oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
⚫ Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for
flow control but it is performed end-to-end rather than
across a single link.
⚫ Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for
Error control. Error control is performed end-to-end rather
than across the single link. The sender transport layer
ensures that message reach at the destination without any
error.

133
Session Layer

134
Functions of the Session
Layer
⚫ Session establishment, maintenance and
termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use and terminate a connection.
⚫ Synchronization : This layer allows a process to
add checkpoints which are considered as
synchronization points into the data. These
synchronization point help to identify the error so that
the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the
messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is
avoided.
⚫ Dialog Controller : The session layer allows two
systems to start communication with each other in
half-duplex or full-duplex.

135
Presentation Layer

136
Functions of the Presentation
Layer
⚫ Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the
information in the form of character strings, numbers and so
on. Different computers use different encoding methods, the
presentation layer handles the interoperability between the
different encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-
dependent format into a common format and changes the
common format into receiver-dependent format at the
receiving end.
⚫ Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy.
Encryption is a process of converting the sender- transmitted
information into another form and sends the resulting
message over the network.
⚫ Compression: Data compression is a process of
compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the number of bits to be
transmitted. Data compression is very important in
multimedia such as text, audio, video.

137
Application Layer

138
Functions of Application layer:
⚫ Network Virtual Terminal – It is a software version
of physical terminal that allows a user to log onto a
remote host
⚫ File transfer, access, and management
(FTAM): An application layer allows a user to
access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve
the files from a computer and to manage the files in
a remote computer.
⚫ Mail services: An application layer provides the
facility for email forwarding and storage.
⚫ Directory services: An application provides the
distributed database sources and is used to provide
that global information about various objects.

139
TCP / IP PROTOCOL SUITE
⚫ The TCP/IP architecture is also called as
Internet architecture.
⚫ It is developed by the US Defense
Advanced Research Project Agency
(DARPA) for its packet switched network
(ARPANET).
⚫ TCP/IP is a protocol suite used in the
Internet today.
⚫ It is a 4-layer model. The layers of
TCP/IP are
1. Application layer
2. Transport Layer (TCP/UDP)
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Interface L4a5/y02/e2r2 M.Kumarasamy College of Engineering 143
140
141
142
APPLICATION LAYER
⚫ An application layer incorporates the function of
top three OSI layers. An application layer is the
topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
⚫ It is responsible for handling high-level protocols,
issues of representation.
⚫ This layer allows the user to interact with the
application.
⚫ When one application layer protocol wants to
communicate with another application layer, it
forwards its data to the transport layer.
⚫ Protocols such as FTP, HTTP, SMTP, POP3, etc
running in the application layer provides service to
other program running on top of application layer

143
TRANSPORT LAYER
⚫ The transport layer is responsible for the
reliability, flow control, and correction of
data which is being sent over the network.
⚫ The two protocols used in the transport
layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.
◦ UDP – UDP provides connectionless service
and end-to-end delivery of transmission. It is an
unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but
not specify the error.
◦ TCP – TCP provides a full transport layer
services to applications. TCP is a reliable
protocol as it detects the error and
retransmits the damaged frames
144
INTERNET LAYER
⚫ The internet layer is the second layer of the
TCP/IP model.
⚫ An internet layer is also known as the
network layer.
⚫ The main responsibility of the internet layer is to
send the packets from any network, and they
arrive at the destination irrespective of the route
they take.
⚫ Internet layer handle the transfer of information
across multiple networks through router and
gateway .
⚫ IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the
most significant part of the entire TCP/IP suite

145
NETWORK INTERFACE LAYER
⚫ The network interface layer is the lowest layer of the
TCP/IP model.
⚫ This layer is the combination of the Physical layer
and Data Link layer defined in the OSI reference
model.
⚫ It defines how the data should be sent physically
through the network.
⚫ This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission
of the data between two devices on the same
network.
⚫ The functions carried out by this layer are
encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP
addresses into physical addresses.
M.Kumarasamy College of 149
146
147
NETWORK PERFORMANCE
⚫Network performance is measured in
using:
◦ Bandwidth,
◦ Throughput,
◦ Latency,
◦ Jitter,
◦ RoundTrip Time

148
BANDWIDT
H
⚫The bandwidth of a network is given
by the number of bits that can be
transmitted over the network in a
certain period of time.
⚫Bandwidth can be measured in two
different values: bandwidth in hertz
and bandwidth in bits per second.

149
⚫ Bandwidth in Hertz
Bandwidth in hertz refers to the range of
frequencies contained in a composite signal or the
range of frequencies a channel can pass.
 For example, we can say the bandwidth of a
subscriber telephone line is 4 kHz.
• Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds
Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds refers to the
number of bits transmitted per second.
For example, the bandwidth of a network is a
maximum of 100 Mbps. This means that this
network can send 100 Mbps.
◦ Relationship
There is an explicit relationship between the
bandwidth in hertz and bandwidth in bits per
second.
Basically, an increase in bandwidth in hertz
means an increase in bandwidth in bits per
second. M.Kumarasamy College of 153
150
 THROUGHPUT
⚫ Throughput is a measure of how fast we can
actually send data through a network.
⚫ Bandwidth in bits per second and throughput may
seem to be same, but they are different.
⚫ A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can
only send T bps through this link. (T always less than
B).
⚫ In other words, the bandwidth is a potential
measurement of a link; the throughput is an actual
measurement of how fast we can send data.
⚫ For example, we may have a link with a bandwidth of
1 Mbps, but the devices connected to the end of the
link may handle only 200 kbps. This means that we
cannot send more than 200 kbps through this link.

151
LATENCY (DELAY)
⚫The latency or delay defines how long it
takes for an entire message to travel from
one end of a network to the other.
⚫Latency is made up of four components:
Propagation time, Transmission time,
Queuing time and Processing delay.

152
Propagation Time
⚫ Propagation time measures the time
required for a bit to travel from the
source to the destination.
⚫ The propagation time is calculated by
dividing the distance by the propagation
speed.
⚫ The propagation speed of electromagnetic
signals depends on the medium and on the
frequency of the signal.

153
Transmission Time
⚫ In data communications we don’t send just 1 bit, we
send a message.
⚫ The first bit may take a time equal to the
propagation time to reach its destination.
⚫ The last bit also may take the same amount of
time.
⚫ However, there is a time between the first bit leaving
the sender and the last bit arriving at the receiver.
⚫ The first bit leaves earlier and arrives earlier.
⚫ The last bit leaves later and arrives later.
⚫ The transmission time of a message depends on the
size of the message and the bandwidth of the channel.

154
Queuing Time
⚫ Queuing time is the time needed for each
intermediate or end device to hold the
message before it can be processed.
⚫ The queuing time is not a fixed factor. It
changes with the load imposed on the
network. When there is heavy traffic on the
network, the queuing time increases. o An
intermediate device, such as a router, queues
the arrived messages and processes them
one by one
⚫ If there are many messages, each
message will have to wait.
155
Processing Delay
⚫Processing delay is the time that the
nodes take to process the packet
header.
⚫Processing delay is a key component in
network delay
⚫During processing of a packet, nodes
may check for bit-level errors in the
packet that occurred during transmission
as well as determining where the packet's
next destination is.
156
Bandwidth - Delay Product
⚫Bandwidth and delay are two
performance metrics of a link.
⚫The bandwidth-delay product defines the
number of bits that can fill the link.
⚫This measurement is important if we
need to send data in bursts and wait for
the acknowledgment of each burst
before sending the next one.

157
JITTER
⚫ Another performance issue that is
related to delay is jitter.
⚫ Jitter is a problem that if different packets of
data encounter different delays and the
application using the data at the receiver site
is time-sensitive (audio and video data, for
example).
⚫ If the delay for the first packet is 20 ms, for
the second is 45 ms, and for the third is 40
ms, then the real-time application that uses
the packets endures jitter.

158
JITTER

159
ROUND-TRIP TIME (RTT)
⚫RTT refers to how long it takes to send
a message from one end of a network to
the other and back, rather than the one-
way latency. This is called as round-trip
time (RTT) of the network.

160
Latency = Propagation time * Transit time *
Queue
size
Propagation time = Distance
Speed of light
Transit time = Packet size
Bandwidth
Throughput = Packet transfer size
Packet
Transfer time =transfer
RTT+ time 1
Bandwidth+ Packet transfer size
161
Problem 1:
⚫What is the propagation time if the
distance between the two points is
12,000 km?
Assume the propagation speed to be 2.4
× 108 m/s .

162
Problem 2:
What are the propagation time and the
transmission time for a 2.5-KB
(kilobyte) message (an email) if the
bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps?
Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and
that light travels at 2.4 * 108 m/s.

163
Problem 3:
What are the propagation time and the
transmission time for a 5-MB (megabyte)
message (an image) if the bandwidth of
the network is 1 Mbps?
Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and
that light travels at 2.4 * 108m/s.

164
Problem 4:
Suppose a 128-kbps point-to-point link is set up
between the Earth and a rover on Mars. The distance
from the Earth to Mars (when they are closest together)
is approximately 55 Gm, and data travels over the link
at the speed of light—3 ×108 m/s.
(1) Calculate the minimum RTT for the link
(2)Calculate the delay × bandwidth product for
the link.
(3)A camera on the rover takes pictures of its
surroundings and sends these to Earth. How
quickly after a picture is taken can it reach
Mission Control on Earth? Assume that each
image is 5 Mb in size.

165
166
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
⚫ Transmission media is a communication channel
that carries the information from the sender to the
receiver.
⚫ Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic
signals.
⚫ The main functionality of the transmission media is to
carry the information in the form of bits (Either as
Electrical signals or Light pulses).
⚫ It is a physical path between transmitter and
receiver in data communication.
⚫ The characteristics and quality of data transmission are
determined by the characteristics of medium and signal.

167
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
⚫ Transmission media is of two types :
Guided Media (Wired) and UnGuided
Media (wireless).
⚫ In guided (wired) media, medium characteristics
are more important whereas, in unguided
(wireless) media, signal characteristics are
more important.
⚫ Different transmission media have different
properties such as bandwidth, delay, cost and ease
of installation and maintenance.

168
TRANSMISSION MEDIA

169
FACTORS FOR DESIGNING
THE TRANSMISSION MEDIA
⚫ Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining
constant, the greater the bandwidth of a medium,
the higher the data transmission rate of a signal.
⚫ Transmission impairment: When the
received signal is not identical to the transmitted
one due to the transmission impairment. The
quality of the signals will get destroyed due to
transmission impairment.
⚫ Interference: An interference is defined as the
process of disrupting a signal when it travels over
a communication medium on the addition of
some unwanted signal.

170
TYPES / CLASSES OF
TRANSMISSION MEDIA

171
GUIDED MEDIA
⚫It is defined as the physical medium
through which the signals are
transmitted.
⚫It is also known as Bounded media.
⚫Types of Guided media:
🞄Twisted Pair Cable,
🞄Coaxial Cable ,
🞄Fibre Optic Cable

172
TWISTED PAIR CABLE
⚫ Twisted pair is a physical media made up of
a pair of cables twisted with each other.
⚫ A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared
to other transmission media.
⚫ Installation of the twisted pair cable is
easy, and it is a lightweight cable.
⚫ The frequency range for twisted pair
cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
⚫ A twisted pair consists of two insulated
copper wires arranged in a regular spiral
pattern.

173
TWISTED PAIR CABLE

174
175
Unshielded Twisted Pair
⚫ An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in
telecommunication.
⚫ Following are the categories of the
unshielded twisted pair cable:
⚫ Category 1: Suports low-speed
data.
⚫ Category 2: It can support upto
4Mbps.
⚫ Category 3: It can support upto
16Mbps.
⚫ Category 4: It can support upto 176
Unshielded Twisted Pair
Advantages :
⚫It is cheap.
⚫Installation of the unshielded twisted
pair is easy.
⚫It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:
⚫This cable can only be used for
shorter distances because of
attenuation.
177
178
Shielded Twisted Pair
A shielded twisted pair is a cable that
contains the mesh surrounding the wire that
allows the higher transmission rate.

179
Shielded Twisted Pair
Advantages :
⚫ The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not
very high and not very low.
⚫ Installation of STP is easy.
⚫ It has higher capacity as compared to
unshielded twisted pair cable.
⚫ It has a higher attenuation.
⚫ It is shielded that provides the higher data
transmission rate.
Disadvantages:
⚫ It is more expensive as compared to UTP and
coaxial cable.
⚫ It has a higher attenuation rate.

180
181
COAXIAL CABLE
⚫Coaxial cable(Coax) is a very
commonly used transmission media,
for example, TV wire is usually a
coaxial cable.
⚫The name of the cable is coaxial as it
contains two conductors parallel to each
other.
⚫It has a higher frequency as compared to
Twisted pair cable.
182
COAXIAL CABLE
⚫ The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is
made up of copper, and the outer conductor is
made up of copper mesh.
⚫ The middle core is made up of non-
conductive cover that separates the inner
conductor from the outer conductor.
⚫ The middle core is responsible for the data
transferring whereas the copper mesh prevents
from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
⚫ Common applications of coaxial cable are
Cable TV networks and traditional Ethernet
LANs.
183
COAXIAL CABLE

184
Coaxial Cable Standards
⚫ Coaxial cables are categorized by
their
Radio Government (RG) ratings.
⚫ Each RG number denotes a unique set of
physical specifications, including the wire
gauge of the inner conductor, the thickness
and type of the inner insulator, the
construction of the shield, and the size
and type of the outer casing.
⚫ Each cable defined by an RG rating is
adapted for a specialized function.
185
Coaxial Cable Standards

Types of Coaxial cable :

1.Baseband transmission: It is defined as the
process of transmitting a single signal at high speed.
2.Broadband transmission: It is defined as the
process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously.

186
Coaxial Cable
Advantages :
⚫ The data can be transmitted at high
speed.
⚫ It has better shielding as compared to
twisted pair cable.
⚫ It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages :
⚫ It is more expensive as compared to
twisted pair cable.
⚫ If any fault occurs in the cable causes
the failure in the entire network.
187
188
FIBRE OPTIC CABLE
⚫ Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses
electrical signals for communication.
⚫ Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical
fibres coated in plastic that are used to send
the data by pulses of light.
⚫ The plastic coating protects the optical
fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.
⚫ Fibre optics provide faster data
transmission than copper wires.

189
FIBRE OPTIC CABLE

190
FIBRE OPTIC CABLE

191
Basic elements of Fibre optic
cable:
⚫ Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand
of glass or plastic known as a core. A core is a light
transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of
the core, the more light will be transmitted into the
fibre.
⚫ Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as
cladding. The main functionality of the cladding is to
provide the lower refractive index at the core
interface as to cause the reflection within the core so
that the light waves are transmitted through the fibre.
⚫ Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic
is known as a jacket. The main purpose of a jacket is
to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra
fibre protection.

192
FIBRE OPTIC CABLE
Advantages:
⚫ Greater Bandwidth
⚫ Less signal attenuation
⚫ Immunity to electromagnetic interference
⚫ Resistance to corrosive materials
⚫ Light weight
⚫ Greater immunity to tapping
Disadvantages :
⚫ Requires Expertise for Installation and
maintenance
⚫ Unidirectional light propagation.
⚫ Higher Cost.

193
Fibre Optic Application

194
Propagation Modes of Fibre
Optics

195
Multimode Propagation
⚫Multimode is so named because
multiple beams from a light source
move through the core in different
paths.
⚫How these beams move within the cable
depends on the structure of the core.

196
Single-Mode Propagation
⚫ Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly
focused source of light that limits beams to a small
range of angles, all close to the horizontal.
⚫ The single-mode fiber itself is manufactured with a
much smaller diameter than that of multimode fiber,
and with substantially lower density (index of
refraction).
⚫ The decrease in density results in a critical angle that
is close enough to 90° to make the propagation of
beams almost horizontal.
⚫ In this case, propagation of different beams is almost
identical, and delays are negligible. All the beams
arrive at the destination “together” and can be
recombined with little distortion to the signal.

197
Single-Mode Propagation

198
199
UNGUIDED MEDIA
Unguided media transport electromagnetic
waves without using a physical conductor.
This type of communication is often
referred to as wireless communication.

200
UNGUIDED MEDIA
Types:
 Radio Waves
 Microwaves
 Infrared

201
Propagation Methods
⚫Unguided signals can travel from the
source to destination in several ways

202
203
Ground Propagation

204
Ground Propagation

205
Sky Propagation

206
Sky Propagation

207
Line of sight Propagation

208
Line of sight Propagation

209
210
Radio Wave

211
Radio Wave

212
Radio Wave Characteristics
⚫Radio waves are easy to generate.
⚫They can travel long distances.
⚫They can penetrate buildings easily so
they are widely used for communications
both indoors and outdoors.
⚫Radio waves are omni directional.
⚫Radio waves are frequency
dependent.

213
Radio Wave

214
Micro Waves

215
Micro Waves

216
Micro Waves
⚫ Microwaves are used for unicast
communication such as cellular
telephones, satellite networks, and
wireless LANs.
⚫ Higher frequency ranges cannot
penetrate walls.
⚫ Use directional antennas - point to
point line of sight communications.

217
Micro Waves

218
Micro Waves

219
Micro Waves

• Mobile telephone network

• Wireless LAN
• Point to point communication between
stations
• Line of sight communication

220
Infrared

221
Infrared
⚫Infrared signals can be used for short-
range communication in a closed area
using line-of-sight propagation.

222
Infrared Applications
⚫In remote control of home appliances:
TV, VCR, VCD and DVD players
⚫Indoor wireless LAN
⚫Communication between inhouse
electronics gadgets such ad keyboard,
mouse, printers and for controlling fan,
AC.

223
Infrared

224
Guided Media Unguided Media

Signal energy propagates within Signal energy propagates through air

the guided media

Suited for point to point Used for broadcasting purpose.

communication

Signal propagates in guided media in The signal propagates in the form of

the form of voltage, current or electromagnetic waves.
photons

Example: Example:
Twisted pair cables Microware or radio links
Co-axial cables Infrared
Optical fiber cables

225
OSI Layers
⚫https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vv
4y_uOneC0

226
SWITCHING
⚫Switching is the method by which data is
transferred from an input port to an output
port of an intermediate exchange switch.
⚫The most popular methods of switching
are Circuit Switching and Packet
Switching. Packet Switching can be
further classified two sub-types,
into namely, (VC)
Virtual
and Ciruitbased packet
Datagram switching
switching.
227
SWITCHING

228
Circuit Switching
A circuit-switched network is made of a
set of switches connected by physical
links, in which each link is divided into n
channels.
Communication through circuit
switching has 3 phases:
⚫Circuit establishment
⚫Data transfer
⚫Circuit Disconnect
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Circuit Switching
⚫ Circuit switching is primarily used in Telephone
networks and not in Computer networks. In circuit
switching,
⚫ An End to end circuit (path) is first reserved using a
separate signaling protocol
⚫ Data transfer proceeds only after the circuit
establishment phase
⚫ All data of that session passes through the same circuit
⚫ No other user can use this circuit till this session
is completed
⚫ No signaling information is sent along with the data
⚫ Circuit is released after data transfer using the signaling
protocol

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Circuit Switching

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Circuit Switching
⚫Circuit switching is defined as the method
of switching which is used for
establishing a dedicated communication
path between the sender and the receiver.
⚫ The link which is established between
the sender and the receiver is in the
physical form. Analog telephone network
is a well- known example of circuit
switching.

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Crossbar Switch
⚫ The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines
and n output lines. The crossbar switch has n2
intersection points known as cross points.
Disadvantage of Crossbar switch:
⚫ The number of cross points increases as the number
of stations is increased. Therefore, it becomes very
expensive for a large switch. The solution to this is to
use a multistage switch.
Multistage Switch
⚫ Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar
switch into the smaller units and then interconnecting
them.
⚫ It reduces the number of cross points.
⚫ If one path fails, then there will be an availability of
another path.

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Packet Switching
⚫ Packet switching is the process of transmitting data in
small units called as packets. In packet switching, data
that is to be transmitted is split into smaller units.
⚫ A small header containing signalling/addressing
information about the source and destination nodes is
added to each such small data unit, to form packets.
⚫ Each packet is then routed from the source to the
destination by intermediate data exchange devices,
using the signalling information present in each
packet. Packet switching is the switching method used
in data networks for computer communication.

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Packet Switching
⚫ Packet switching is defined as the
connectionless network where the messages
are divided and grouped together and this is
known as a packet.
⚫ Each packet is routed from the source to the
destination as individual packets. The actual
data in these packets are carried by the
payload. When the packet arrives at the
destination, it is the responsibility of the
destination to put these packets in the right
order.
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Packet Switching
⚫ There is no end to end circuit reservation
⚫ A packet consists of a header and data
⚫ Each packet has signaling information in the
form of source and destination addresses in
the packet header.
⚫ Signalling information is used by
intermediate data exchange devices to route
packets.
⚫ Exchange devices like routers and switches
use a store and forward approach for
transmitting packets from an input port to an
output port
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DATAGRAM NETWORKS
In data communications, we need to send
messages from one end system to another
another. If the message message is going to
pass through a packet-switched network, it
needs to be divided divided into packets
packets of fixed or variable variable size.
The size of the packet is determined by the
network network and the governing
governing protocol protocol.

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DATAGRAM NETWORKS

239
Routing table in a datagram
network

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VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS
A virtual virtual-circuit circuit network
network is a cross between between a
circuit circuitswitched switched network
network and a datagram datagram network
network. It has some characteristics
characteristics of both.

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VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS

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Source-to-destination data
transfer in a virtual-circuit
network

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Setup request in a virtual-circuit
network

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Setup acknowledgment in a
virtual-circuit network

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In virtual circuit switching all packets Note
In virtual-circuit switching, all packets
belonging to the same source and
destination travel the same path;
but the packets may arrive at the
destination with different delays if
resource allocation is on demand.

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THANK YOU

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