ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

GODSON R.E.E.ANA
(Ph.D, M.P.H, M.Eng,FLEAD,MAPHA,MRSPH)

DIVISION OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SCIENCES

FACULTY OF PUBLIC HEALTH
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN

West African College of Physicians Revision Course (Part I Candidates)

 Air Quality
The atmosphere is made up of 6 concentric
layers viz:
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
Ionosphere
Exosphere
The closest to the earth’s surface is the
troposphere
Air quality Contd
Composition of the Atmosphere
A colorless, odorless, tasteless, gaseous
mixture, mainly nitrogen (approximately 78
percent) and oxygen (approximately 21
percent)
It has lesser amounts of argon, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen, neon, helium, and other gases.
There are also varying amounts of moisture and
particulate matter, enveloping the earth
Air quality contd
The quality of the earth is affected by two factors viz
1 Natural and
2 Anthropogenic activities (human activities)
Natural factors include
 Volcanic eruption

 Forest fires

 Sea sprays

 Pollen dusts

 Harmattan dust
Air quality contd
Anthropogenic Factors Air Pollution from Industry

 Domestic activities viz

cooking stoves
 Municipal activities viz

automobile emissions
 Agricultural activities viz

pesticide fumes
 Industrial activities viz

cement dust
Air quality contd
Air Pollution:
can be defined as the presence or absence of
substances in the atmosphere that are
physical, chemical or biological in nature at
levels beyond their threshold or background
limits hence causing deleterious
consequences
Air contamination is less severe in magnitude in
the sense that it may or may not cause
deleterious or harmful effects
Air Quality contd
Air pollution can be classified into two types
1.Indoor and
2.Outdoor
Indoor air pollution :
Caused by dampness, carpets, pets, cooking
fuels
Outdoor air pollution:
Refuse burning, automobile emissions,
fumigation, incineration, industrial emissions
etc
Air quality contd
Air Pollutants
Are mostly divided into Gases and Particles
Gaseous pollutants :
Inorganic: COx, SOx, NOx, H2S,NH3,etc
Organic: CH4,C2H6,C3H8,C4H10,-CHO etc
Particulate pollutants:
Dust, soot, fumes, mist, smoke, fog etc
Air Quality contd
Air Pollution Effects
 Environmental Effects

 Health Effects

Environmental effects :
 Global warming

 Ozone layer depletion

 Acid rain

 Climate changes

 Poor visibility

 Corrosion of artifacts and other materials etc

Air quality contd

Health Effects
Occular effects: lacrymation, cataract,
cancer
Dermal effects: erythema, dermatitis,
cancer
Pulmonary effects: URTI, lung disorders,
cancer
Air quality contd

AirQuality
Air quality Management
Monitoring
 Environmental education
 Legislation
 Enforcement
 Monitoring
 In-situ containment devices: dust precipitators, wet
scrubbers, cyclones etc
Housing
Housing in the modern concept includes not only the
physical structure providing shelter, but also the
immediate surroundings, and the related
community services and facilities
Social goals of Housing
Goals are statements about desirable or
projected conditions.
The generally accepted goals of housing are
1. Shelter
2. family life
Housing contd
3. access to community facilities
4. family participation in community life and
5. Economic stability
Criteria for Healthful Housing
 Physical protection and shelter
 adequacy for cooking , eating, washing, and
excretory functions
 designed, constructed and maintained and
used in a manner such as to prevent the
spread of communicable diseases
Housing contd
 provides for protection from hazards of
exposure to noise and pollution
 is free from unsafe physical arrangements
due to construction or maintenance , and
from toxic or harmful materials and
 encourages personal and community
development, promotes social relationships,
reflects a regard for ecological principles, and
by these means promotes mental health.
Housing contd
Housing Standards
Housing stds depend on conventional factors
such as per capita space and floor space and
on social and economic characteristics such
as
 family income,
 family size and composition,
 standard of living,
 life style,
 stage in life cycle,
Housing contd
 education and
 cultural factors

Despite the cultural, climate and social

diversities, housing stds vary from
country to country, region to region etc
but then minimum stds are still
maintained by all country building
regulations
Housing contd
 Typical housing stds in a tropical climate like
India is as follows:
 Site: elevated, accessible, away from breeding
places, away from nuisances, in pleasant
surroundings, the soil should be dry for good
foundation, subsoil water should be below 10 feet.
 Set Back: this is an open space around the house.
In rural area built up area should not exceed one-
third of the total area and in the urban area it
should no exceed two-thirds of the total area(for
proper lighting and ventilation)
Housing contd
 Floor: should be impermeable, smooth and free
from cracks/crevices, damp-proof and height of
the plinth about 2 to 3 feet.
 Walls: should be reasonably strong, have low heat
capacity, weather resistant, unsuitable for
harbourage of rat and vermin, not easily
damaged, and smooth
 Roof: the height of the roof should not be less
than 10 feet in the absence of air-conditioning for
comfort. It should have a low heat transmittance
coefficient
Housing contd
 Rooms: Number of living rooms should not be less
than two. The no and area of rooms should be
increased according to size of family not to
compromise recommended floor space per person
 Floor Area: Floor area of a room should be at least
120sq ft for occupancy by more than one person
and at least 100 sq ft for occupancy by a single
person. The floor area available in living rooms
per person should not be less than 50 sq ft; the
optimum is 100sq ft.
 Cubic space: The height of rooms should be such
as to give an air space of at least 500c.ft per
capita, preferably 1,000 c.ft
Housing contd
 Windows: Every living room should be provided
with at least 2 windows
 windows should be placed at a height of not more

than 3 ft above the ground in the living rooms ,

window area should be 1/5th of the floor area.
 Door and windows combined should have 2/5th

the floor area.

 Lighting: The daylight factor should exceed 1

percent over half the floor area

- Kitchen: Every dwelling house must have a
separate kitchen. It must be protected against
dust and smoke, adequately lighted etc
Housing contd
 Privy: A sanitary privy is a must in every
house, belonging exclusively to it and
readily accessible
 Garbage and refuse: Should be removed
from the dwelling at least daily and
disposed of in a sanitary manner.
 Water supply: The house should have safe
and adequate water supply at all times
Housing contd
Housing and Health
Housing is part of the total environment of man
and so to some extent is responsible for the
status of man’s health and well-being.
Common health conditions associated with poor
housing conditions are:
Respiratory infection: common cold,
tuberculosis, influenza, diphthteria, bronchitis,
measles, whooping cough etc
Housing contd
 Skin infections: scabies, ringworm,
impetigo, leprosy
 Rat infestation: plague
 Arthropods: Houseflies, mosquitoes,
fleas and bugs
 Accidents
 Morbidity and mortality
 Psychosocial effects
Housing contd
Overcrowding
This refers to the situation in which more
people are living within a single dwelling than
there is space for, so that movement is
restricted, privacy secluded, hygiene
impossible, rest and sleep difficult
The degree of overcrowding can be expressed
as the number of persons per room i.e
number of persons in the household divided
by the number of rooms in the dwelling
Housing contd
 Persons per room
 1 room 2 persons
 2 rooms 3 persons
 3 rooms 5 persons
 4 rooms 7 persons
 5 or more 10 persons (plus 2

for each room)

Housing contd
It can also be expressed in terms of the floor
space:
 110 sq ft or more 2 persons
 90-100 sq ft 1 ½ persons
 70-90 sq ft 1 person
 50-70 sq ft ½ person
 Under 50 sq ft nil
 (Note; A baby under 12 months is not
counted; children between 1 to 10yrs counted
as half a unit)
Housing contd
It can also expressed in terms of sex
separation: If two persons over 9 years of
age, not husband and wife , of opposite
sexes, are obliged to sleep in the same room.
Effects of Overcrowing
 Respiratory morbidities

 Skin diseases

 Poor sanitation

 Stressed social amenities

Housing contd
 Increased morbidity
 Increased mortality

 High accident rates

Vulnerable groups viz children, pregnant

women, aged and the sick.
Housing contd
Indicators of Housing
 This is necessary for assessing the quality of

life.These indicators are ;

 Physical : These are based on floor space, cubic

space, room height, persons per room, rooms per

dwelling, environmental quality(eg air, light, water,
noise, sewage disposal etc)
 Economic : These are cost of the building, rental

levels, taxes, expenditure on housing etc

 Social: indicators related to illness, indicators related

to comfort, and indicators related to mental health

Noise and Radiation

OCCUPATIONAL AND COMMUNITY NOISE

 The hubbub of the city -- the phrase conveys the excitement, the
hustle and bustle of urban life, the throng of crowds and traffic,
traders, shoppers, rowdy diversion and entertainment.
 In ancient Rome the clatter of iron wheels of wagons on the stone
pavements disturbed the sleep and so annoyed citizens that legislation
was enacted to control movement.
 Some cities of mediaeval Europe prohibited horse and carriage traffic
to protect the sleep of the inhabitants.
 The noise problems of the past are incomparable with those plaguing
modern society: the roar of aircraft, the thunder of heavily laden lorries
and the thumps and whines of industry provide a noisy background to
our lives. But such noise can be not only annoying but also damaging
to the health, and is increasing with economic development.
Noise contd

HEALTH IMPACT
 The recognition of the noise as a serious
health hazard as opposed to a nuisance is a
recent development and
 the health effects of the hazardous noise
exposure are now considered to be an
increasingly important public health problem.
Noise contd
 Globally, some 120 million people are estimated to
have disabling hearing difficulties. (ref. Guidelines
p.X)
 More than half citizens of Europe live in noisy
surroundings; a third experience levels of noise at
night that disturb sleep. (ref. Guidelines p.XII)
 In the USA in 1990 about 30 million people were
daily exposed to a daily occupational noise level
above 85 dB, compared with more than nine million
people in 1981; these people mostly in the
production and manufacturing industries. (ref Noise
Sources p.85)
Noise contd
 In Germany and other developed countries as many
as 4 to 5 million, that is 12-15% of all employed
people, are exposed to noise levels of 85 dB or more.
 In Germany, an acquired noise-related hearing
impairment that results in 20% or more reduction in
earning ability is compensatable; in 1993, nearly 12
500 new such cases were registered. (ref Noise
Sources p.85 and p. 86)
 Prolonged or excessive exposure to noise, whether in
the community or at work, can cause permanent
medical conditions, such as hypertension and
ischaemic heart disease. (ref. Guidelines p.XII)
Noise contd
 Noise can adversely affect performance, for example
in reading, attentiveness, problem solving and
memory. Deficits in performance can lead to
accidents. (ref. Guidelines p.XII)
 Noise above 80 dB may increase aggressive
behaviour. (ref. Guidelines p.XIII)
 A link between community noise and mental health
problems is suggested by the demand for
tranquillizers and sleeping pills, the incidence of
psychiatric symptoms and the number of admissions
to mental hospitals. (ref. Guidelines p.XII)
Noise contd
 Noise can cause hearing impairment, interfere with
communication, disturb sleep, cause cardiovascular
and psycho-physiological effects, reduce
performance, and provoke annoyance responses and
changes in social behaviour.
 The main social consequence of hearing impairment
is the inability to understand speech in normal
conditions, which is considered a severe social
handicap.
 Whereas in the developed world hearing impairment
is mostly restricted to the work setting, in cities in
the developing world the problems are worse, with
increasing hearing impairment due to community
noise.
Noise contd
SOUND AND THE EAR
 At birth the inner ear is fully developed and has its full
complement of hair cells, supporting cells and nerve fibres.
 Unlike most other tissues in the body, mammalian hair cells and
nerve fibres do not regenerate when damaged. (ref.
Pathophysiology of the Ear p. 40)
 The response of the human ear to sound depends both on the
sound frequency (measured in Hertz, Hz) and the sound
pressure, measured in decibels (dB).
 A normal ear in a healthy young person can detect sounds with
frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. (Ref. Guidelines p. IX).
Speech frequency ranges from 100 to 6000 Hz. (ref Guidelines
p.XI).
Noise contd
COMMUNITY NOISE
 Noise-induced hearing impairment is by no means restricted to
occupational situations -- noise levels associated with
impairment are experienced at open-air concerts, discotheques,
motor sports events etc. (ref. Guidelines p.XIV).
 Such non-industrial noise is referred to as community noise,
also known as environmental, residential or domestic noise.
 The main indoor sources are ventilation systems, office
machines, home appliances and neighbours.
 Other typical sources of neighbourhood noise include the
catering trade (restaurants, cafeterias etc.), live or recorded
music, sports, playgrounds, car parks, barking dogs.
Noise contd
 For most people, life-time's continuous exposure to an
environmental average noise level of 70 dB will not cause
hearing impairment.
 An adult person's ear can tolerate an occasional noise level of
up to 140 dB, but for the children such an exposure should
never exceed 120 dB. (ref. Guidelines p.XI).
 Continued growth in transport systems -- highways, airports
and railways -- generate more noise.
 Many countries have regulations on community noise from rail,
road, construction and industrial plants based on emission
standards, but few have any regulations on neighbourhood
community noise, probably owing to difficulties with its
definition, measurement and control. This and the insufficient
knowledge of the effects of noise on people handicap attempts
to prevent and control the problem.
Noise contd
OCCUPATIONAL NOISE
Sources of Occupational Noise
 The many and varied sources of noise in industrial

machinery and processes include: rotors, gears,

turbulent fluid flow, impact processes, electrical
machines, internal combustion engines, pneumatic
equipment, drilling, crushing, blasting, pumps and
compressors.
 Furthermore, the emitted sounds are reflected from

floors, ceiling and equipment. Noise is a common

occupational hazard in many workplaces.
Noise contd
 The major sources of noise that damages hearing are
impact processes, material handling and industrial
jets. (ref Noise Sources p. 89)
 Air jets -- widely used, for example, for cleaning,
drying, power tools and steam valves --can generate
sound levels of 105 dB. (ref Noise Sources p. 89)
 Workers in a cigarette factory in Brazil involved in
compressed air cleaning were exposed to sound
levels equivalent to 92 dB for 8 hours. (ref. Noise
Sources p.96)
 In the woodworking industry the sound levels of
saws can be as high as 106 dB. (ref Noise Sources p.
95)
Noise contd
 Average sound levels range between 92 and 96 dB in
industries such as foundries, shipyards, breweries,
weaving factories, paper and saw mills.
 The recorded peak values were between 117 and
136 dB. (ref Noise Sources p. 100)
 In most developing countries, industrial noise levels
are higher than those in developed countries.
 Noise-induced hearing impairment is the most
common irreversible (and preventable) occupational
hazards world-wide.
Noise contd
 Cheaper, more cost-effective production is a driving
force in economic development.
 However, new processes introduced on grounds of
cost-effectiveness are often noisier than previous
ones.
 The associated rise in noise levels is often
overlooked. Thus, even though noise-reducing
measures may have been incorporated in the design
of machinery, greater output may generate higher
noise levels.
 For example, for every doubling of the speed of
rotary machines the noise emission rises by about 7
dB, of warp knitting looms -- 12 dB, of diesel engines
-- 9 dB, of petrol engines -- 15 dB, and of fans --
between 18 to 24 dB.
Noise contd
 Exposure for more than 8 hours a day to sound in excess of 85
dB is potentially hazardous.(ref. Exposure criteria p. 78)
 After exposure to a typical hazardous industrial sound around
90 dB for an 8-hour work day, the ear tires and hearing is
temporarily impaired.(ref Pathophysiology of the Ear p.42
 Industrial workers exposed to noise often turn the volume of
their car radios up when they leave work, but turn it down in
the morning, because it is too loud.
 After a time, hearing recovery becomes less complete and
impairment becomes permanent.(ref Pathophysiology of the Ear
p.42)
 This can be noticeable within 6-12 months of starting a job
where levels of sound are hazardous.(ref Pathophysiology of the
Ear p.45)
Noise contd
 Transient tinnitus (ringing in the ear) is a common
occupational hearing condition, especially in people
exposed to impact noise.
 It should be considered as a warning of excessive
exposure to sound and a trigger for appropriate
preventive action. (ref. Pathophysiology of the Ear
p.42)
 Warning sounds: one sound can sometimes interfere
with the perception of another.
 Because lower frequency sounds can mask higher
sounds, warning sounds should be pitched at lower
frequencies than the dominant industrial background
noise. (ref Fundamentals of Acoustics p.22)
Noise contd
OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE LIMITS
 Occupational exposure limits specify the maximum

sound pressure levels and exposure times to which

nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed
without adverse effect on their ability to hear and
understand normal speech.
 An occupational exposure limit of 85 dB for 8 hours

should protect most people against a permanent

hearing impairment induced by noise after 40 years
of occupational exposure.(p.65, Exposure Criteria)
Noise contd
NOISE REDUCTION (REF NOISE SOURCES
P100)
 Noise-induced hearing impairment is

preventable.
 Protection against hazardous noise exposure

should be included into overall hazard

prevention and control programmes in
workplaces.(p218) The dangers of noise
should be recognized before workers start
complaining of hearing difficulties.
Noise contd
MACHINE SAFETY
 A European Union Directive requires that the machines are so
designed and constructed that hazards from the noise emissions
are minimized.
 Declarations of the noise emissions of machines are required, to
allow potential buyers not only to select the least hazardous
equipment but also to calculate the noise impact at workplaces
and to help with noise-control planning. (ref Noise Sources
p.100 --101)
 It is 10 times less expensive (unit cost per decibel reduction) to
make noise-generating processes quieter than to make a barrier
to screen the noise.(ref Engineering Noise Control p. 231)
Noise contd
 Noise levels can be lowered by the use of noise-
control enclosures, absorbers, silencers and baffles
and by the use of personal protective equipment,
such as earmuffs. Where technical methods are
insufficient, noise exposure may be reduced by use
of hearing protection and by administrative controls
-- such as limiting the time spent in noisy
environment and scheduling noisy operations outside
normal shifts or at distant locations.
 Essential elements of noise control programmes are
education and training of the workers as well as
regular hearing tests. (ref. Hazard Prevention and
Control Programmes p.221)
Noise contd
WHO RESPONSE
 WHO has responded in two main ways: by developing and
promoting the concept of noise management, and by drawing
up community noise guidelines.
 The field is marked by a scarcity of literature, especially for
developing countries. Some 20 years after its last publication on
noise, WHO has issued Guidelines for Community Noise.
 This publication, the outcome of a WHO expert task force
meeting in London in March 1999, includes guideline values for
community noise (listing also critical health effects ranging from
annoyance to hearing impairment), for example: (ref Guidelines
p. XVIII)
Noise contd
 The ear has different sensitivities to different frequencies, being
least sensitive to extremely high and extremely low frequencies.
(ref Fundamentals of Acoustics p. 19)
 Because of this varied sensitivity, the term "A weighting" is
used: all the different frequencies, that make up the sound, are
assessed to give a sound pressure level.
 The sound pressure level measured in dB is referred to as "A-
weighted" and expressed as dB(A). (ref Guidelines p.IX and X).
 The guidelines also offer recommendations to governments for
implementation, such as extending (and enforcing) existing
legislation and including community noise in environmental
impact assessments. The role of WHO is to provide leadership
and technical support.
Noise contd
Environment Critical health Sound level Time hours
effect dB(A)*
Outdoor living areas 16
Annoyance 50 - 55

35 16
Indoor dwellings Speech intelligibility

30 8
Bedrooms Sleep disturbance

School classrooms Disturbance of 35 During class

communication

Industrial, commercial 70 24
Hearing impairment
and traffic areas

Music through 85 1
Hearing impairment
earphones

Ceremonies and 100 4

Hearing impairment
entertainment
Radiation
Classified into Non ionizing and Ionizing
Radiation
Non Ionizing Radiation
The sun is the chief source
 Visible light

 Infra red

 Ultraviolet radiation

 Radio frequency waves

Radiation contd
Electromagnetic spectrum
Radiation contd
What is UV radiation?
 Everyone is exposed to UV radiation from the sun
and an increasing number of people are exposed to
artificial sources used in industry, commerce and
recreation.
 Emissions from the sun include visible light, heat and
UV radiation.
 The UV region covers the wavelength range 100-400
nm and is divided into three bands:
 UVA (315-400 nm)
 UVB (280-315 nm)
 UVC (100-280 nm).
Radiation contd
 As sunlight passes through the atmosphere,
all UVC and approximately 90% of UVB
radiation is absorbed by ozone, water vapour,
oxygen and carbon dioxide.
 UVA radiation is less affected by the
atmosphere.
 Therefore, the UV radiation reaching the
Earth’s surface is largely composed of UVA
with a small UVB component.
Radiation contd
 Environmental factors that influence the UV level
Radiation contd
 Sun height—the higher the sun in the sky,
the higher the UV radiation level.
 Thus UV radiation varies with time of day and
time of year, with maximum levels occurring
when the sun is at its maximum elevation, at
around midday (solar noon) during the
summer months.
 Latitude—the closer the equator, the higher
the UV radiation levels.
Radiation contd
 Cloud cover— UV radiation levels are highest
under cloudless skies.
 Even with cloud cover, UV radiation levels can
be high due to the scattering of UV radiation
by water molecules and fine particles in the
atmosphere.
 Altitude—at higher altitudes, a thinner
atmosphere filters less UV radiation. With
every 1000 metres increase in altitude, UV
levels increase by 10% to 12%.
Radiation contd
 Ozone—ozone absorbs some of the UV
radiation that would otherwise reach the
Earth’s surface.
 Ozone levels vary over the year and even
across the day.
 Ground reflection—UV radiation is reflected or
scattered to varying extents by different
surfaces, e.g. snow can reflect as much as
80% of UV radiation, dry beach sand about
15%, and sea foam about 25%.
Radiation contd
Ozone layer depletion and uv-related health effects
Radiation contd
 Depletion of the ozone layer is likely to
aggravate existing health effects caused by
exposure to UV radiation, as stratospheric
ozone is a particularly effective UV radiation
absorber.
 As the ozone layer becomes thinner, the
protective filter provided by the atmosphere
is progressively reduced.
 Consequently, human beings and the
environment are exposed to higher UV
radiation levels,
Radiation contd
 especially higher UVB levels that have the
greatest impact on human health, animals,
marine organisms and plant life.
 Computational models predict that a 10%
decrease in stratospheric ozone could cause
an additional 300,000 non-melanoma and
4500 melanoma skin cancers and between
1.6 and 1.75 million more cases of cataracts
worldwide every year.
Radiation contd

Sources of Ionizing Radiation

Radiation contd

A Nuclear Power Plant

Radiation contd
 Ionizing radiation has always been a
part of the human environment.
 Along with natural radioactive sources
present in the Earth crust and cosmic
radiation,
 man-made sources also contribute to
our continuous exposure to ionizing
radiation
Radiation contd
 Environmental radioactive pollution has
resulted from past nuclear weapons
testing,
 nuclear waste disposal, accidents at
nuclear power plants, as well as
 from transportation, storage, loss, and
misuse of radioactive sources.
Radiation contd
 While there are risks associated with
exposure to radiation
 benefits of nuclear applications in medicine
industry and science are well established.
 WHO’s radiation programme aims to assure
that the benefits of radiation technology far
exceeds any known risks.
Radiation contd

Health Effects associated with Radiation

 Occular disorder

lacrymation,cataract
 Dermal disorder

Erythema,depigmentation, cancer
 Reproductive disorders
Radiation contd

Management of Radiation Effects

 Avoidance

 Education

 Protective device

 Legislation

 Enforcement
 Biodiversity
Definition:
It refers to the multiplicity of species of
plants and animals in a biological
community and the many ecological
niches that they may occupy
Diversity in animal and plant species
leads to greater stability of the
ecosystem
Contd
 The ecosystem functions more
efficiently, with different species
occupying more niches and extracting
full benefit from the energy and
nutrient available
 More complicated systems have greater
adaptability in the face of
environmental changes
contd
 Ecological niches occupied by different
species may partly overlap and allow
substitutions if one or more are lost
 Loss of biodiversity therefore means a
less stable, less adaptable, less self
restoring system
 Biodiversity is also a means of
preserving genetic diversity
Contd
 Each species and sub-species contain
within their genes the result of
hundreds of thousands, even millions of
years of evolution
 The genetic constitution is written onto
DNA, the molecule that conserves the
genetic code
 It constitutes a library of ‘blueprints’ for
living beings and for biological
adaptation
contd
 All groups of organisms recognized as
species have a basic genetic
constitution made of traits common to
all members of the species
 They also have a set of variations that
have been introduced by mutations,
random changes in the gene pool
introduced by mistakes in replication of
DNA or the effect of ionizing radiation
on DNA
contd
 Most of such mutations are harmful and
do not survive
 A few confer new traits that may or
may not be useful to the individual that
carries them
 The variation in genetically determined
traits among individual members of any
species or sub-species is what drives
evolution
contd
 Natural selection favours some variants
and not others, so that some traits
survive and others do not.
 Many of the variants represent traits
that survived because they were useful
 The individuals who carried the traits
could adapt to new conditions or exploit
new ecological niches
contd
Economic benefits of Biodiversity
Agriculture: Improved crops and animal
breeds(pests and disease resistance,
water tolerant, greater productivity}
Chemical production: snake venoms,
pheromones, squid ink
Pharmaceutical products: plants and
animal chemicals
 contd
 Biotechnology and Genetic engineering
(use of strains for waste management)
Causes of Biodiversity Loss
Hunting the species, habitat loss,
reduction in species, environmental
degradation
Biodiversity loss is a sensitive sign of the
deterioration of the environment as a
whole