ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

TOPIC: 1 THE HUMAN BODY

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OBJECTIVES

DEFINITION OF TERMINOLOGIES

 Anatomy: This is the study of the structures of the body.

 Physiology: This is the study of the body function.
 Pathology This is the study of abnormalities and how they affect the
body functions.
 Medial: The structure is nearer to the midline.e.g The heart is medial to
the humerus.
 Lateral: The structure is further from the midline or at the side of the
body.
 Proximal: Nearer to the point of attachment of a limb or origin of the
body part e.g the femur is proximal to the fibula.
 Distal: Further from the point of attachment.
 Posterior or dorsal: Behind
 Anterior or ventral: Front.

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  Superior: Above or structure nearer to the head
 Inferior: Down or further from the head. e,g the scapular is inferior to the skull.
 Vertical: Upright
 Superficial: on the surface.
 SYSTEMS IN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
 Cardiovascular system
 Lymphatic system
 Nervous system
 Endocrine system
 Respiratory system
 Digestive system
 Urinary system
 Mascular skeletal system
 Reproductive system
 Integumentary or exocrine system

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 CAVITIES IN THE HUMAN BODY
 They are four main cavities in the human body.
 Dorsal cavity: Bones of the cranial portion of the skull and vertebral
column.
 Cranial cavity: contains the brain
 What is a cavity? This is any fluid filled space in a multicellular organism.
 Spinal cavity: contains the spinal cord
 Ventral cavity: Anterior portion of the torso. (flont part of the body)
 Thoracic cavity: this cavity contain the trachea,
brochi,lungs,eosophagus,heart,great blood vessels, thymus gland, lymph
node and nerves.
 Pleural cavities:sorrounds each lung.
 Pericardial cavity: contains the heart.
 Abdominopelvic cavity:

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  Abdominal cavity: contains the stomach,liver,gallbladder,pancrease,spleaen,small intestines and most of the
large intestines.

 Pelvic cavity: contains the end of the large intestines, rectum, urinary
bladder and internal reproductive organs.

o ACTIVITY: DESCRIBE THE HUMAN BODY CAVITIES AND

STATE THE DIFFERENCES (10%)

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 HUMAN BODY CAVITIES

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 THE CELLS, TISSUE AND ORGANISATION
 Cell: This is the smallest unit of the body.
 Cytology: This is the study of cells.
 The human cell is divided into parts:
1. Plasma membrane or cell membrane
2. Organelles
 Plasma membrane
 The plasma membrane consists of two layers of phospholipids layer ( fatty
substances) with protein and sugar molecules embedded in them.
 FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL MEMBRANE
 Protective functions: The cell membrane protects the cytoplasm and
organelles present in the cytoplasm.
 Selective permeability: The cells membrane acts as a semipermeable which
allows substances to pass through and acts as a barrier for other substances.

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  Absorptive function: the nutrients are absorbed into the cell through the cell membrane

 Excretory function: the metabolites and other product of the cells are excreted out through the
cell membrane.
 Exchange of gases: Oxygen enters the cell from the blood and carbon dioxide leaves he cell and
enters the blood through the cell membrane.
 Maintenance of shape and size of the cell: the cell membrane is responsible for the
maintenance of shape and size of the cells.
 ORGANELLES
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Golgi apparatus
 Lysosomes
 Peroxisome
 Centrosomes and centrioles
 Secretory vesicles
 Mitochondria
 Nucleus
 Ribosomes
 Cytoskeleton

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 Rough endoplasmic reticulum:
 Synthesis of proteins
 Degradation of worn out organelles
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum:
 Synthesis of lipids and steroids
 Storage of metabolism of calcium
 Degradation of toxic substances
 Golgi apparatus
 Processing,packaging,labeling and delivery of proteins and lipids.
 Lysosomes
 Degradation of macromolecules like bacteria
 Degradation of worn out organelles
 Secretory functions
 Peroxisomes
 Break down of excess fatty acids
 Oxygen utilization
 Degradation of toxic substances like hydrogen peroxide.

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  Centrosomes: movement of chromosomes during cell division

 Mitochondria:
 Production of energy
 Synthesis of ATP(adenosine triphosphate), energy carrying molecule)
 Initiation of apoptosis(normal death of cells)
 Ribosomes
 Synthesis of proteins
 Cytoskeleton:
 Determination of shape of the cell
 Stability of cell shape
 Cellular movement
 Nucleus
 Control of all cell activities
 Synthesis of RNA(ribonucleic acid)
 Sending of genetic instructions to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis
 Formation of subunits of ribosomes
 Control of cell division
 Storage of hereditary information in the genes

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ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE CELL
FIG:1.1

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Fig:1.1

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  TISSUES
 A tissue is a group of cells
 Tissues of the body consists of large numbers of cells and they are classified
according to size, shape and functions of these cells.
 They are four main types of tissues that each have subdivision and these are:
1. Epithelial tissue or epithelium
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscle tissue
4. Nervous tissue
 EPITHELIAL TISSUE
 This is the group of tissues covering the body and cavities, hollow organs and tubes. It
is found in the glands, the structure of the epithelium is closely related to its function
which includes:
 Protection of underlying structures e.g from dehydration, chemical and mechanical
damage
 Secretion
 Absorption

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  The cells are very closely packed.
 The cells usually lie on a basement membrane.
 Note: Epithelial tissue may be:
1. Simple: a single layer of cells
2. Stratified: several layers of cells
 Simple epithelium
 The simple epithelium consists of a single layer of identical cells and is
divided into three main types.
 It is usually found on the absorptive or secretory surfaces.
 The types are named according to the shape of cells which differs according
to their function. The more active the tissue the taller the cells.
 Squamous epithelium (pavement)
 This is composed of a single layer of flattened cells.
 The cells fit closely together like stones forming a very thin membrane were
diffusion occurs.

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  It forms lining of the following structures
1. Heart: Where its known as the endocardium.
2. Blood vessels: Where its known as the endothelium.
3. Lymph vessels : Known as the endothelium.
4. Alveoli of the lungs
5. Lining of the collecting ducts of the nephrons in the kidney
 Cuboidal epithelium
 This consists of cube- shaped cells fitting closely together lying on a basement membrane.
 It forms the kidney tubes and is found in some glands.
 Cuboidal epithelium is actively involved in secretion, absorption and excretion.

 Columnar epithelium
 This is formed by a single layer of cells, rectangular in shape, on a basement membrane.
 It lines many organs and often has adaptation that make it well suited to a specific
function.
 E.g. the lining of the stomach is formed from a simple columnar epithelium without
surface structures, the surface of the columnar epithelium lining the small intestines are
covered with the microvilli.

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  The microvilli provides a large surface area for absorption of nutrients
from the small intestines.

 And in the trachea , columnar epithelium is ciliated and contains goblet cells that
secrete mucus. This means particles that stick to the mucus layer are moved towards
the throat by cilia in the respiratory tract and in the uterine tubes, ova are propelled
along by cilliary action towards the uterus.
 Stratified epithelia
 Stratified epithelia consists of several layers of cells of various shapes.
 The basement membrane are usually absent.
 The main function of stratified epithelium is to protect underlying structures from
mechanical wear and tear.
 There are two main types of stratified epithelia and these are:
1. Stratified squamous epithelium
2. Transitional epithelium
 Stratified squamous epithelium
 It is composed of a number of layers of cells
 And it is divided in the following areas:

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  Keratinised stratified epithelium.
 Non- keratinised stratified epithelium.
 Keratinised stratified epithelium
 This is found on a dry surfaces subjected to wear and tear i.e. skin, hair and nails.
 The surface layer consists of dead epithelial cells that have lost their nuclei and
contains protein keratin.
 This forms a tough, relatively waterproof protective layer that prevents drying of
live cells underneath.
 Non- keratinised stratified epithelium
 This protects moist surfaces subjected to wear and tear and prevents them from
drying out e.g. conjunctiva of eyes, the lining of the mouth, the pharynx, the
oesophagus and vagina.
 Transitional Epithelium
 This is composed of several layers of pear-shaped cells.
 It is found the lining the urinary bladder and allows for stretching as the bladder
fills.

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  CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 The connective tissue is the most abundant tissue in the body.
 A connective tissue is a type of tissue that provides support, cushion, strength
and elasticity to other tissues or organs of the body
 The connective tissue cells are more widely separated from each other than in
the epithelial tissues and intercellular substances (matrix) are present in
considerably larger amounts.
 There are usually fibers present in the matrix which may be semisolid jelly-like
consistency or dense and rigid depending upon the function of the tissues.
 It as got some fibers forming a supporting network of cells to attach them.
 Most connective tissues have a good blood supply.
 The following are the major functions of connective tissue:
1. Binding and structural support
2. Transport
3. Protection
4. Insulation

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  Cells in connective tissue
 Connective tissue, excluding blood is found in all organs supporting the specialised tissue.
 Types of connective tissues
1. Loose connective tissues
2. Dense connective tissues
 Different types of cells involved in connective include:
1. Fibroblasts
2. Fat cells
3. Macrophages
4. Leukocytes
5. Mast cells
 Fibroblasts
 Fibroblasts are large cells with irregular processes.
 They produce collagen and elastic fibers sometimes known as reticulin fibers.
 These fibers are actively found in very active tissues such as the liver and the lymphoid
tissue.
 Fibroblasts are particularly active in tissue repair especially during wound healing in the
process of granulation.

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  FAT CELLS:
 They are also called adipocytes.
 These cells occurs singly or in groups in many types of connective tissues.
 They are abundant in adipose tissue.
 They vary in shape, size according to the amount of fats they contain.
 MACROPHAGES
 These are irregular-shaped cells with granules in the cytoplasm..
 Some are fixed attached to connective tissue fibers others are motile.
 They play a vital role in defence mechanism because they are actively
phagocytic, engulfing and digesting debris, bacteria and other foreign bodies.
 LEUKOCYTES
 White blood cells are normally found in the small numbers in healthy
connective tissues but neutrophils migrate in significant numbers during
infection when they play an important part in tissue defence.

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  PLASMA CELLS
 These develop from B-lymphocytes a type of white blood cell.
 They synthesise and secrete specific defensive antibodies into the blood and
tissues.
 MAST CELLS
 These cells are similar to basophil leukocytes.
 They are found in loose connective tissue and under the fibrous capsule of
some organs e.g liver, spleen and in considerably numbers round blood
vessels.
 They produce granules containing heparin, histamine and other substances,
which released when the cells are damaged by diseases or injury.
 Histamine is involved in local and general inflammatory reactions, it
stimulates the secretion of gastric juice and is associated with the
development of allergies and hypersentivity state.
 Heparin prevents coagulation of blood which may aid the passage of
protective substances from the blood to affected tissues.

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 LOOSE (AREOLAR) CONNECTIVE TISSUE

 This is the most generalised type of connective tissues.

 It is found in almost everyday part of the body, providing elasticity and
tensile strength. It connects and supports other tissues for example:
1. Under the skin
2. Between muscles
3. Supporting blood vessels and nerves
4. In the alimentary canal
5. In glands supporting secretory cells.
 ADIPOSE TISSUE
 Adipose tissue consists of fat cells (Adipocytes) which contains large fat
globules in a matrix of areolar tissue.
 They are two types of adipose tissues and these are:
1. White adipose tissue
2. Brown adipose tissue

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  White adipose tissue:
 This makes up 205 to 25% of body weight in well nourished adults.
 The amount of adipose tissue in an individual is determined by the balance
between energy intake and expenditure.
 It is usually found supporting the kidneys and the eyes, between muscle
fibres and under the skin where it acts as a thermal insulator and energy
store.
 Brown adipose tissue
 This is present in the new born.
 It has a more extensive capillary network than the white adipose.
 When brown tissue is metabolised it produces less energy and considerably
more heat than other fat, contributing to the maintenance of body
temperature.
 In some adults it is present in small amounts.

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  LYMPHOID TISSUE
 This tissue is also known as the reticular tissue it has a semi-solid matrix.
 It contains reticular cells and white blood cells (monocytes and lymphocytes).
 Lymphoid tissue is found in the lymph nodes and all organs in the lymphatic system.
 DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 It contains more fibres and fewer cells than loose connective tissue.
 Fibrous tissue:
 Made up mainly of closely packed bundles of collagen fibers with very little matrix.
 Elastic tissue:
 It is found in organs where stretching or alteration of shape is required e.g large blood vessel walls, trachea and
bronchi, lungs.
 Note: Blood is also a fluid connective tissue (will be covered in chapter 4).
 Types of specialized connective tissue
1. Bone connective tissue
2. Blood connective tissue
3. Cartilage connective tissue
4. Adipose connective tissue
5. Tendons
6. Fascia
7. Ligaments
8. Mesenchyme

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  MUSCLE TISSUE
 The muscle tissue is divided in the following three areas:
1.Skeletal muscle tissue
2. Smooth muscle tissue
3. Cardiac muscle tissue
 Muscle tissue is able to contract and relax, providing movement within the body.
 Muscle contraction requires an adequate blood supply to provide sufficient oxygen,
calcium and nutrients and to remove waste products.
 Skeletal muscle tissue
 This is described as skeletal because it forms the bones of the skeleton.
 It is striated because it as striations (stripes).
 It is voluntary as it is under conscious control.
 Smooth muscle tissue
 Its non- striated, visceral or involuntary.
 It does not have striations and is not under our conscious control.
 Smooth muscle as the intrinsic ability to contract and relax.
 Contraction of smooth muscle is slower and more sustained than the skeletal muscle.

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  It is found in the walls of hollow organs:
1. Regulating the diameter of the blood vessels and parts of the respiratory
tract.
2. Propelling contents of the ureters, ducts of glands and alimentary tract.
3. Expelling contents of the urinary bladder and uterus.
 Cardiac muscle
 This type of muscle tissue is only found in the heart wall.
 Its not under conscious control but when viewed under a microscope it as
cross- striations.
 NERVOUS TISSUE
 They are two types of tissues found in the nervous system.
1. Excitable cells: these are called neurones
2. Non- excitable cells: also known as glial cells which support neurones.

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  SUMMARY
 Connective tissue cells
 Fibroblasts
 Produces the fibers in connective tissue
 Mast cells
 They release histamine during hypersentivity reaction
 Macrophages (histiocytes):
 Phagocytose pathogens and debris thereby helping control infections.
 Plasma cells
 Involved in the production of antibodies
 Leukocytes (white blood cells)
 These include eosinophil's, basophils, neutrophils, monocytes and lymphocytes.
 Adipocytes (fat cells)
 Found abundantly in the adipose connective tissue

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  Connective tissue fibers
1. Collagen fibers
2. Reticular fibers
3. Elastic fibers
 Connective tissue components
1. Ground substance (fluid matrix)
2. Connective tissue fibers
3. Connective tissue cells
 Cells ---- Tissues --- Organs --- System

Thank you the end!!!!

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